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T h e A u s t r a l i a n C o l l a b o r at i o n A Collaboration of National Community Organisations Biodiversity in Australia Life on Earth depends on the complex interaction of many natural processes. Plants purify the air and water, trap sunlight and produce food for other species. Trees provide habitat and food for plants, birds, insects, and other animals, and are also important ‘sinks’ for the absorption of carbon dioxide. Fungi and micro-organisms create and maintain the productivity of soils by recycling organic materials. Birds, insects and mammals pollinate plants and maintain nutrient cycles. Parasites and predators provide natural population control. Wetlands provide habitats for a great variety of life forms and serve as ‘sponges’ to reduce floods and cleanse streams. This diversity of living things also holds the key to scientific knowledge about the origins of life. It is is the result of billions of years of evolution. It provides basic life support for human societies and underpins the success of many industries, including agriculture, tourism, cosmetics and pharmaceuticals. Biodiversity loss is therefore of profound significance. Ways that biodiversity has been defined Biodiversity refers to the full diversity of living things on Earth. A more formal definition was arrived at during the 1992 United Nations Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro. The Summit defined biodiversity as “the variability among living organisms from all sources, including terrestrial marine, and other aquatic ecosystems, and the ecological complexes of which they are part: this includes diversity within species, between species and of ecosystems”. This definition was adopted by the United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity (1993). The Convention has been signed by nearly every country in the world, including Australia. Signatory countries are committed to three main goals: conservation of biodiversity; development of national strategies for the sustainable use of biodiversity; and fair and equitable sharing of benefits arising from resources (for example, transfer of biotechnology) in all societies. There are three levels of biodiversity: • Species diversity defines the number of species and their relative abundance in a defined area, and is often used as an indicator of ecosystem health and quality. For example, rainforest vegetation contains a high diversity of plant species (up to 500 species per hectare) and up to eight levels of vegetation, providing ideal conditions for birds and animals to nest and feed. By contrast, Eucalyptus open forests support less biodiversity (up to 150 species per hectare) and no more than five levels of vegetation; Eucalyptus forests are also subject to more disturbance, such as periodic fires. Heathland is even less biodiverse, containing no more than 60 species per hectare and no more than two levels of vegetation; heathland, too, is highly disturbance-prone, requiring regular fire for regeneration. • Genetic diversity is the variety and combination of genes within species of plants, animals, fungi and microorganisms. The maintenance of genetic diversity is essential for natural selection, adaptation and survival. • Ecosystem diversity refers to the variety of habitats such as forests, deserts, wetlands, rivers, mountains and coral reefs and the interaction between species within a given ecosystem. Ecosystems function according to complex networks between biotic (living) components such as plants and animals, and abiotic (non-living) factors such as air, sunlight, water, minerals and nutrients. Ecosystems supporting a higher diversity of plant species, such as tropical rainforests also support a higher diversity of animal species. For instance, it is estimated that 50-90% of all species, both flora and fauna, exist in tropical rainforests. Over 2,600 bird species (approximately 30% of total bird species) live in this complex environment. Diversity within natural ecosystems leads to stability; the modification of a natural ecosystem leads to lower diversity and instability. www.australiancollaboration.com.au 1 T h e A u s t r a l i a n C o l l a b o r at i o n The United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) entered into force on 29 December 1993. It was established in response to the world community’s increasing commitment to sustainable development and increasing concern about biodiversity loss. Although humanity’s economic and social development relies fundamentally on biological resources, biodiversity is being lost at rates unprecedented in human history. Currently, 193 countries are Parties to the CBD. Its Secretariat periodically releases the Global Biodiversity Outlook, with the third and most recent edition being published in 2010. It highlighted constant and in some cases intensifying biodiversity losses. Habitat loss, unsustainable use and overexploitation of resources, climate change, invasive alien species and pollution continue to affect most countries to an alarming extent. For example, if further deforestation occurs in the Brazilian Amazon, the combined effects of deforestation, fires, droughts and climate change could cause a widespread dieback with dramatic changes to the vegetation. There would also be global impacts associated with increased carbon emissions and massive loss of biodiversity. Coral reefs are also facing catastrophic loss of biodiversity due to warmer sea temperatures, overfishing and pollution, threatening the livelihoods and food security of hundreds of millions of people. The latest CBD summit took place in October 2010 in Nagoya, Japan. Three measures were adopted to help ensure that the planet’s ecosystems will continue to sustain human wellbeing in the future. These measures were: • A new ten-year plan - the Strategic Plan of the Convention on Biological Diversity (also known as the ‘Aichi Target’) to guide international and national efforts; • A strategy to substantially increase current levels of development assistance in support of biodiversity; and • A new international protocol to ensure the fair sharing of benefits from the use of the Earth’s genetic resources. The Aichi Target will be the overarching framework on biodiversity for the United Nations, and is expected to be implemented locally, nationally and internationally by 2012. It aims to address the underlying causes of biodiversity loss, to safeguard biodiversity and enhance its benefits, and to provide for capacity-building. Parties at the summit agreed to the following actions and targets, which regrettably are not binding on nation states: • To at least halve and, where feasible, bring close to zero the rate of loss of natural habitats including forests; • To protect 17 per cent of terrestrial and inland water areas and 10 per cent of marine and coastal areas; • To restore at least 15 per cent of degraded areas through conservation and restoration efforts; and • To make special efforts to reduce the pressures faced by coral reefs. These targets will complement the Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety, an international agreement established in 2003 to supplement the CBD. The Cartagena Protocol seeks to protect biological diversity from potential risks resulting from modern biotechnology. It aims to promote informed decision-making at the national level regarding the importation of genetically modified organisms. Australia’s biodiversity Australia is is one of 17 countries in the world which are recognised as ‘megadiverse’, meaning that they harbour a high percentage of the Earth’s species. Scientists estimate a total of 8.7 million species exist worldwide, including approximately 1 million species inhabiting Australia. 70 per cent of the world’s species are found in Australia, Brazil, China, Colombia, Costa Rica, Ecuador, India, Indonesia, Madagascar, Mexico, Peru and the Democratic Republic of Congo. In Australia, more than 80% of plant and animal species are endemic, which means that they do not occur naturally anywhere else. Notable proportions of species endemic to Australia are 85 per cent of the nation’s flowering plant species (one of the highest in the world), 93 per cent of its reptiles, 87 per cent of its mammals, 85 per cent of its temperate inshore fish and approximately 45 per cent of its bird species. There are more than 2,800 endemic plant species in the eucalyptus forests, woodlands and heathlands of south-western Western Australia alone. Australia’s rich biodiversity is largely due to geographical isolation, continental separation and the uniqueness of its climate and environment. www.australiancollaboration.com.au 2 T h e A u s t r a l i a n C o l l a b o r at i o n Biodiversity loss in Australia The factors that contribute to loss of biodiversity include soil and vegetation disturbance; feral animals; the introduction of other exotic species such as weeds and parasites; fire; the depletion of water resources; habitat loss and destruction; and plant disease. These threats are largely the result of land modification (such as deforestation, mining, agriculture, road works and urban development), and the impact of climate change, salinity, pollution and unsustainable commercial activities (such as over-fishing). Some species can adapt to changing conditions, but the many that cannot adapt become depleted or disappear. The Australian landmass is divided into bioregions: large, geographically distinct areas of land with common characteristics such as geology, landform patterns, climate, ecological features and plant and animal communities. Of Australia’s 85 bioregions, 80 bioregions include at least one threatened ecosystem. The National Land and Water Resources Audit (1997–2002) identified almost 2,900 threatened ecosystems and ecological communities across Australia. These threatened areas are especially prevalent in the southern and eastern regions of the continent. Below are some examples of biodiversity threats in different regions and habitats. The tropical lands of northern Australia The tropical lands of northern Australia are home to hundreds of species of native plants, mammals, birds, reptiles and amphibians and tens of thousands of invertebrate species. They include some of Australia’s most loved natural wonders, such as World Heritage listed Kakadu National Park and the wetlands of Roebuck Bay (surrounding Broome). Northern Australia’s environments are under increased pressure from land clearing, overgrazing, inappropriate or altered fire regimes and mining. Wetlands face serious threats such as salt water intrusion into freshwater floodplains, and invasion of introduced plants and feral animals such as buffaloes, cane toads and pigs. their grandeur and the rich array of life forms they support. Since European settlement, half of Australia’s forests and three quarters of its rainforests have been cleared and over 90 per cent of old growth forests have been logged. Of our remaining forest areas, only 17 per cent are protected from logging and half of these protected areas have already been logged. The forests under threat are beautiful, irreplaceable and vital to wildlife. They include the tallest flowering plants on Earth and some of Australia’s most significant tracts of temperate rainforest. Saving our forests does not equate to employment losses. There are many opportunities to create jobs and new industries while protecting old growth forests. Rangelands Nearly 75% of Australia’s landmass is rangeland. Rangelands include a variety of ecosystems including native grasslands, woodlands and shrublands. Livestock grazing on native pastures is common practice across the rangelands, while broadscale cropping and cultivation is limited. Home to over 1,800 identified plant species and 600 vertebrate animals, this wealth of biodiversity is under threat due to land degradation from overgrazing, soil salinity, reduced water quality and other unsustainable land management practices. Other impacts include mining, tourism and the increased numbers and dispersal of weeds and feral animals in various regions. Marine environments Australia’s marine environments reach from the tropics to Antarctica. For many years the ocean has been considered an inexhaustible fish resource and a bottomless pit for our waste. As our population has grown, the pressures on oceans have increased. A decade ago, Australia had five fish species categorised as ‘over-fished’; now there are seventeen. Over-fishing, pollution from urban and rural runoff, introduced marine pests, loss of habitat due to coastal developments, coral bleaching and other problems linked to climate change contribute to the destruction of marine environments and ocean life. Threatened flora and fauna Forests Australia’s forests – extending from the towering ancient forests of the Styx in Tasmania to the tropical Daintree rainforest of Queensland – are recognised worldwide for The tables below indicate the numbers of species of fauna and flora that are currently under threat and/or extinct in Australia. It is worth noting that mammal extinctions represent half of the world’s most recent fauna extinctions. www.australiancollaboration.com.au 3 T h e A u s t r a l i a n C o l l a b o r at i o n Table 1: Threatened or extinct fauna in Australia Category of threatened or extinct fauna Number of species of mammals, reptiles, birds, frogs, fishes and other animals Extinct 55 Extinct in the wild 1 Critically endangered 40 Endangered 143 Vulnerable 201 Conservation dependent Total 4 444 From Department of Sustainability, Environment, Water, Population and Communities. Biodiversity Species Profile and Threats Database: EPBC Act List of Threatened Fauna. Australian Government. http://www.deh.gov.au/cgi-bin/sprat/public/publicthreatenedlist. pl?wanted=fauna Table 2: Threatened or extinct flora in Australia Category of threatened or extinct flora Number of species of plants of all kinds Extinct 42 Extinct in the wild 0 Critically endangered 118 Endangered 531 Vulnerable 651 Conservation dependent Total 0 1342 that the draft strategy has many critical failings and is unlikely to work effectively to protect Australia’s rich biological diversity. They recommended that the new strategy acknowledge the drivers of biodiversity loss, set clear and accountable biodiversity targets, and include a far stronger raft of principles, policies and commitments by all levels of government and the populace. The Australian Government’s National Reserve System Program and the Maintaining Australia’s Biodiversity Hotspots Programme are investment strategies to conserve biodiversity and protect ecosystems for future generations. The National Reserve System Program is underpinned by a scientific framework designed to protect rare or threatened species and areas of high species diversity. It includes more than 9,400 protected areas including Commonwealth, state and territory reserves, Indigenous lands, protected areas managed by non-profit organisations and private land. The Maintaining Australia’s Biodiversity Hotspots Programme targets biodiversity hotspots on private and leasehold land, to identify and facilitate conservation improvements in these areas. Biodiversity is the common heritage of humankind. It is now recognised that conservation strategies must include the protection of biodiversity (ecosystem, species and genetic diversity) across all types of public, private and reserve lands. Bioregional planning – the term for policy making for and protection of these areas – covers not only vertebrates and flowering plants, but also invertebrates, non-flowering plants, fungi and micro-organisms which make up the majority of species diversity in any ecosystem. Department of Sustainability, Environment, Water, Population and Communities. Biodiversity Species Profile and Threats Database: EPBC Act List of Threatened Flora. Australian Government. http://www.deh. gov.au/cgi-bin/sprat/public/publicthreatenedlist.pl?wanted=flora Biodiversity policies and programs In protecting Australia’s biodiversity, The Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 is the main legal instrument and the National Strategy for the Conservation of Australia’s Biological Diversity has provided the framework since 1996. Replacing this Strategy is Australia’s Biodiversity Conservation Strategy 2010 – 2020, currently a draft strategy in circulation for public comment. In June 2009, a group of 94 scientists (ecologists, marine biologists and conservation planners) expressed concern www.australiancollaboration.com.au 4 T h e A u s t r a l i a n C o l l a b o r at i o n Useful sources Australian Conservation Foundation website. Retrieved 16 November 2010 from http://www.acfonline.org.au This website includes numerous resources about biodiversity which can be accessed by using the site’s search field. Department of the Environment, Water, Heritage and the Arts. Conservation of Australia’s Biodiversity. Australian Government. Retrieved 16 November 2010 from http://www.environment.gov.au/biodiversity/ This site contains up-to-date information on biodiversity in Australia, including legislation, policies, publications and key reports, as well as links to popular websites. Mora, C., Tittensor, DP., Adl, S., Simpson, AGB. & Worm B. (2011). How Many Species Are There on Earth and in the Ocean? PLoS Biol 9(8). Retrieved 4 January 2011. http://www.plosbiology.org/article/info%3Adoi%2F10. 1371%2Fjournal.pbio.1001127 PLoS Biology is an open-access, peer-reviewed journal published by the Public Library of Science. United Nations Environment Program. United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity. Retrieved 16 November 2010 from http://www.cbd.int/ This site provides access to the UN Convention on Biological Diversity and the Biosafety Protocol, as well as up-todate information about biodiversity in a global context. Department of Sustainability, Environment, Water, Population and Communities. Australia’s Rangelands: Fact Sheet. Australian Government. Retrieved 4 January 2011 from http://www.environment.gov.au/land/publications/ rangelands.html This site contains facts on Australia’s rangelands as well as links to national principles and guidelines for rangeland management. Wilderness Society (2003), Australia’s Biodiversity: A Summary. Retrieved 16 November 2010 from http://www.wilderness.org.au/articles/biodivsum/ The Wilderness Society is a national, community-based environmental organisation. Hood, L. (2010). ‘Biodiversity: Facts and figures.’ Science and Development Network. Retrieved 16 November 2010 from http://www.scidev.net/en/features/biodiversityfacts-and-figures-1.html This article summarises recent data on the world’s biodiversity, its value and efforts to conserve it. Dr Nicola Henry and Jen Rae, PhD researcher RMIT University. Authors Date of last revision January 2012. Howden, M., Hughes, L., Dunlop, M., Zethoven, I., Hilbert, D. & Chilcott, C. (2003). Climate Change Impacts On Biodiversity In Australia, Outcomes of a workshop sponsored by the Biological Diversity Advisory Committee, 1–2 October 2002. Canberra: Commonwealth of Australia. Retrieved 16 November 2010 from http://www.environment.gov.au/ biodiversity/publications/greenhouse/ This publication examines research and policy responses to the impact of climate change on biodiversity in Australia. www.australiancollaboration.com.au 5