* Your assessment is very important for improving the workof artificial intelligence, which forms the content of this project
Download Geology
Survey
Document related concepts
Great Lakes tectonic zone wikipedia , lookup
Schiehallion experiment wikipedia , lookup
Geomorphology wikipedia , lookup
History of Earth wikipedia , lookup
Future of Earth wikipedia , lookup
Mantle plume wikipedia , lookup
Age of the Earth wikipedia , lookup
Plate tectonics wikipedia , lookup
Late Heavy Bombardment wikipedia , lookup
Geology of Great Britain wikipedia , lookup
Algoman orogeny wikipedia , lookup
History of geology wikipedia , lookup
Large igneous province wikipedia , lookup
Igneous rock wikipedia , lookup
Tectonic–climatic interaction wikipedia , lookup
Transcript
Gujarat Institute of Technical Studies name: Patel Savan Vasudev Bhai Semester: 3st Sem. Branch: Civil Engineering Enrollment No. : 130620106006 Topic: geology 1. Geology Geology = Earth Science What is the meaning of geology ? Geology is the study of Earth, includes, Chemical and Physical Properties, Earth Creation, Inner and Outer Processes Affected it, Since Its Creation To Present Day. Geological Branches A-Basic geology:1- Crystallography . B-Connected Branches:1- Geochemistry. C- Applied Geology:1-Economic Geology. 2- Mineralogy. 2- Geophysics. 2-Engineering Geology. 3- Petrology . 3-Geomorpholpgy. 3-Petroleum Geology. 4- Paleontology . 4-Structural Geology. 4-Hydrogeology. 5- Stratigraphy . 5-Photogeology. 5-Mining geology. 6- Dynamic geology . 6-Oceanography. 6-Agricultural geology. 7- Historical geology . 7- Field geology. 33 7-Miltary geology. 8-Glacial geology. 9-Volcanology. 10-Cosmic geology. 11-Geodesy. The relationship between geology and other sciences 1-Physics ----------- Geophysics ---------- 1-Gravity Method. 2-Magnetic Method. 3-Seismology. 4-Electrical Method. 2-Biology --------------- Paleontology ------Remaining of Animals and Botanical. 3- Chemistry ----------- Geochemistry. 4-Engineering ---------- Engineering geology. 3 The site of Earth within Galaxy (Milky Way) D = Day Y = Year 4 4 Nature of Earth A-Dimensions of Earth :1-The polar Radius =6357 kilometre . 2-Equator Radius =6378 kilometre . 3-Polar Circumference = 6357 km x 2 x 22 ÷ 7 = 40 009 kilometre . 4-Equator Circumference = 6378 km x 2 x 22 ÷ 7 = 40 077 kilometre . 5-Area of earth surface = 510 000 000 square kilometre. 7-Dry area of earth surface = 29,22% = 149 000 000 square kilometre. 8-Water area of earth surface = 70.78% = 361 000 000 square kilometre. 9-highest point of dry area at earth surface = 8848 metre (Everest mountains crest). 10-Avverage of earth surface = 840 metre. 11-deeper point of ocean = 11033 metre (Mariana trench). 12-Average of ocean deep = 3808 metre. Polar Dimension Equator 5 7 C R O S S S E C T I O sial 5 - 60 km Crust 5 - 60 km sail Crust 0C Sima Sima 870 C Upper Mantle Conrad Discontinuity Conrad Discontinuity Peridotite Rocks Moho Discontinuity Moho Discontinuity Peridotite Rocks Mantle 35 - 2900 km Mantle Lower Mantle Pallasite Rocks (peridotite=Fe ) () Gutenberg Discontinuity 2 200 C Gutenberg Discontinuity 2900 km Upper Core Upper Core Fe = 90% Ni = 10% N I N E A R T H 2900 - 6370 km Core Earth Crust Density= 2.85 gm/cm3 Lowe Core Core Iron+Ni Lower Core Mantle Density = 4.53 gm/cm3 Core Density= 10.7gm /cm3 6370 km 6 000 C 6 Earth Covers 1-Atmosphere cover. 3-Biosphere cover. 2-Hydrosphere cover. 4-Lithosphere cover. 1-Atmosphere cover :-It is Air cover, surrounding Earth. Its thickness about 316 km . atmosphere is consist of many Gases like :a- N2 about 78% b- O2 about 21% c- Ar about 0.93 d- CO2 about 0.03% e- H2 about 0.011 99.124% About 35 PPM are inactive Gasses such as Neon, Helium and Ozone are present in Atmosphere . 1-Atmosphere Cover:-Atmosphere cover is divided into:A-Troposphere layer :1- Elevation of Troposphere layer is about 8 - 18 km . 2- Temperature is decreasing about 6 ْC every 1 km rising 3-This layer is consist of homogenous gases, water vapour, CO2 and dust. B-stratosphere layer :1- The second layer with elevation about 50- 80 km . 2- The lower part of this Layer is (50 km) named Ozone layer . 3- Stratosphere temperature is increase to 35 ْC with no storm. 4- Stratospheric Pressure is 0.5 mm mercury (1/1520) of Normal Pressure. C-Ionosphere Layer:1- The elevation is about 80 – 316 km 2- the Ionization is due to the affects of the Cosmic and Ultra violent Rays, so it is good Conductor for Electricity. 3- Many of (Meteors and Meteorites)are Burn with Traffic in this Layer. 4- This Layer is Good medium to cross Radio and Wireless Waves. D-Exosphere layer :The highest layer in the Atmosphere ,so it is extend as far as entrance of outer space . Meteor:It is Solid, Small masses swimming in the space, but when it falls on the Earth it called (Meteorites). 7 Earth Crust – sial and Sima Layer Sial Layer:-It is the upper part of Earth crust .Its thickness between 2-15 km, Density about 2.8gm /cm3 . Sail is consist of light colours Granitic Rocks ( Aluminium Silicate). Sial Layer is thick at Land while it is thin or absent at Oceans. Sima Layer:-It is the lower part of Earth Crust. Its thickness about 20-25 km, Density about 3.4gm /cm3 . Sima consist of Magnesium Silicate. The upper part of this layer is Crystalline but the lower part is uncrystalline (classy texture). Conrad Discontinuity:- Interference zone which is separated between Sial and Sima. Sea Level Conrad Discontinuity Sial Layer Sima Layer Moho discontinuity 8 11 Outer Properties Of Crystals The properties of Crystal are depend on:1-Crystal Faces:-The Crystals have regular outer planes named (Crystal Faces) A . 2- Crystal Angles:- a-The angle between two neighbor faces is named (Edge Angle) B . b-The angle between three neighbor faces is named (Solid Angle) C . c-The angle between two faces is (Interfacial Angle), It can measured by two perpendicular columns on neighbor and 0pp0site faces C . 3-Crystal Form:- It means groups of Crystals are similar in shape, Area and its Crystal situation. The Crystal can be form of one shape of faces named (Simple Form) or many shapes named (Compound Form). A - Faces C A B Closed Crystal Face B - Edges Angle C - Solid Angle Interfacial Angle Faces and angle of crystals Open Crystal 9 14 2-Evaporation of Assistant Dissolved Gas Underground Solutions contains dissolved CO2 Gas as a result of Rainfall. This is result H2CO3 (weak Carbonic Acid), Which is dissolved Limestone and to form Calcium Bicarbonate Ca (HCO3)2.The later is Chemically unstable. So It is escape CO2 Gas and come back to Calcium Carbonate. CaCO3+H2O+CO2 Ca(HCO3)2 Ca(HCO3)2 (Deposited Calcium Bicarbonate) CO2+H2O+CaCO3 (Deposited Calcite) (1) (2) This phenomena is clear in Rainy, Cavities and Limestone Regions, Since Limestone is Deposit in Conical Shape as above Equation, Named:- Stalactite and Stalagmite. Mountain Travertine CaCO3 Hot Spring Water Table Stalactite Stalagmite Cave Aquifer 10 Hot Body Minerals Creation Of Gas A-Volatiles Cassiterite (SnO2) B-Another Minerals Tourmaline – Topaz C-Through Volcanic S - NaCl Minerals Creation Of Solutions A-Surface Solutions (Oceans, Seas, Lakes):1-Crystalline Minerals (Evaporation) Calcite(CaCO3) Gypsum(CaSO4)2H2O 2-Exchage Reaction (Special Minerals) Barite(BaSO4) Minerals Creation Of Magma A-Magma Hardening:1-Sillicate Minerals Plagioclase(Na-Ca)AlSi3O8 Olivine(Fe- Mg)SiO4 Quartz(SiO2 – Mica 2-Oxide Minerals 3-Creature Affected 1-Coral (Extract – CaCO3) 2-Foraminefra (Extract – Si) 3-Bacteria (Absorbed –Fe – S) B-Underground Solution:1-Hydrothermal Solutions a-Hypothermal Solutions (Walframi Fe,Mn)WO4 Cassiterite (SnO4) Magnetite(Fe3O4) Chromite(FeCr2)O4 3-Sulfide Minerals Galena (PbS) – Pyrite(FeS2) B.-Lava Hardening. Obsidian (Complex Rocks) b-Mesothermal Solutions Galena- PbS – Sphalarite – ZnS c-Epithermal Solutions Quartz- SiO2 – Cinnabar- FeS2 2-Evaporation Of Assistant Dissolved Gas Stalactite – Stalagmite CaCO3 11 26 4-Isomorphism:-It means two minerals are different in chemical composition and similar in crystal shape. It is series of minerals which is create through replacement between two atoms almost are equals radius like sodium (Na) and calcium (Ca) to consist a Plagioclase Series. It Crystallized in Triclinic system. Plagioclase Series Albite % Anorthite % 1-Albite 2-Oligoclase 3-Andesine 4-Labrodorite 5-Betonite 6-Anorthite 100 - 90 90 – 70 70 – 50 50 – 30 30 – 10 10 - 0 0 -10 10 – 30 30 – 50 50 -70 70 – 90 90 - 100 NaAlSi3O8 CaAl2SI2O8 Plagioclase Series is different in chemical composition, So it has graduation of physical properties at two end sides. 5-Pseudomorphism:- It means mineral has constant atomic building and chemical composition while its outer shape like another mineral such as Pyrite(FeS2) may be change to the Gothite Mineral(FeO2) but the later is still has the same outer shape of Pyrite. Classification of Minerals:-There are many kinds of Classification:A-Economic Classification :- It depend on Economic Value of Mineral like Diamond, Gold, Platinum and Silver, Cupper and Lead, Zinc. B-Crystal Chemistry:-like Chemical Bonds, Co-Ordination Number and Isomorphism. C-Similar Basic Ions:-Depend on Basic Ions Consist Minerals such as:1-Minerals Group contains Iron (Fe):- (Hematite-Fe2O3) (Magnetite Fe3O4) (Pyrite-FeS2) (Limonite-FeO(OH)nH2O. 2-Minerals Group contains Cupper (Cu):- (Chalcopyrite-CuFeS2) (Borenite- Cu5FeS4) (Anargite-Cu3AsS4) (Chalcosite Cu2S). 3-Minerals Group contain Lead (Pb):- (Galena-PbS) 4- The best Classification for Minerals is depend on (Kind of Acidic Ions) of J.D.Dana an American Scientist, So Minerals are Classify into Oxides, Sulphates, carbonates, Phosphates etc. Note:-More than 2000 Minerals are Known yet. 12 32 ROCKS Rocks:- It is a Solid substance Consist of one Mineral or Mixture of Minerals. Earth crust is Consist of:- 1-Igneous Rocks. 2-Sedimentary Rocks. 3-Metamorphic Rocks. Rocks Cycle Magma 13 34 D-Classification of Igneous Rocks Ultra basic Rocks Basic Rocks Blackish Color-Light Density Basalt Gabbro Intermediate Rocks Andesite Diorite Acidic Rocks Light Color-Low Density Dacite Granodiorite Obsidian Glassy Texture Rhyolite Fine Grains Texture Granite Coarse Grains Texture 100% Orthoclase (KAlSi3O8) PlagIoclase (Na,Ca)AlSi3O8) Quartz (SiO2) 50% Olivine Pyroxene Ferromagnesium Minerals Amphibole Porphyritic texture:-Coarse and fine crystals in the same rocks. Pumice:-Classy texture with fine spaces as a result of gas escape. Biotite Mica 0% 14 37 Shapes of Igneous Masses Volcano Sill Phacolith Dike Lacolith Lapolith B a t h o l i t h 15 39 E-Classification Of Sedimentary Rocks Chemical And Organic Sedimentary Rocks Chemical Kinds Of Sedimentary Rocks Texture Chemical Composition Mechanical Or Clastic Sedimentary Rocks Grains Size Sediments Rock Name Rock Name > 256 mm Boulders Conglomerate Breccia Clastic or Non Clastic CaCO3 (Ca,Mg)CO3 Limestone Dolostone 2 – 256mm Gravels Conglomerate Breccia Non Clastic CaSO4 2H2O NaCl Gypsum Halite 2 – 1 /16 mm Sand Sandstone CaCO3 SiO2 fine Grains Remaining of Vegetable Organic Lst Chert Coal Organic or Biological 1 /16 – 1 /256 < 1 /256mm Silt (50%Sand+50%Clay) Clay Siltstone Clay stone Coal Forming Stages :Plants Remaining in Swamps for a long Time Bury Anthracite Beat Heat and Pressure Lignite Bituminous More Heat and Pressure For a Longer Time Heat and Pressure for a Long Time 16 43 Faster Wind Wind Direction Slower Wind 10ْ 30 ْ Sand Dune Forming Figure 2 B Sand Dunes Forming is a result of reducing at wind velocity. Sand dues are growth around small part (Gravel or Sand) called Nucleus. Some times it moves to another place with wind direction by way of Sand Dunes Migration. Dunes highest is between (few – many Tens) feet. Loess Deposits :It is very fine grains (Dust) of quartz, mica, calcite and feldspar with reddish yellow, suspended in air for a long distance, Then it is descend on earth surface by gravity or rainfall. The typical formation is Loess Area in France. There are many kinds of Sand Dunes Figure 3 :17 50 1- Barchan (Crescentic) Dunes 4-Star Dunes Figure 3 Types of Sand Dunes 2—Transvers Dunes 3-Longitudinal Dunes 5-Seif Dunes 6-U-Shape Dunes Iraqi Sand Dunes West of Beji – Tikreet East of Najaf West of Samawa18 West of Nasiriyah 51 Flood Plains 1-Youth Stage Properties of Youth Stage:a- the cross section of River at Youth Stage is V shape. b- Ability to Grave its Riverbed. c- Waterfalls are Present. d- The Branches of River are Short and Little. e- It can not be Navigation of Ships in this Stage. f- It is Good for Electricity Generation. g- Dijla River is represent this stage from (Armenia Highland) in Turkey to Mosel City in North Iraq. 2-Mature Stage Properties of Mature Stage :a- River is More Width and it had Gentle Slope on both sides, So the shape of Cross section is like half Cycle. b- The Branches is more than Youth and Longer. c- Velocity of Water is Moderate, So it is suitable for Navigation. d- Area between Mosel and Baghdad is represent Mature Stage. Stages Of River 3-Old Stage Properties of Old Stage:a- River depth and Slope of both Sides are Little. b- Low Flow and much Deposits. c- Flood plain is Present on both sides of River. so the River was loosed its Energy for Graving, Thus the River is begin to Deposits to form Flood Plain. d- Meanders are Present in this Stage. e- Area between Baghdad and Basra is represent this Stage. 19 53 2-Hypogene Processes (Interior Processes) Hypogene processes means all internal processes which is lead to either a quick processes like earthquakes and volcanoes or slow processes ike oroginic movement. plate tectonic theory explains this processes. Plate Tectonic Theory Plate Tectonic is the study of the origin and arrangements of the broad structural features of earths surface, including not only folds and faults, but also mountains belt, continents and earthquakes belts. The basic idea of Plate Tectonics is that, earth surface is divided into eight large Plates plus Few smaller Plates makeup the outer shell of Earth (Lithosphere). Plates are move slowly With intense geologic activity occur at plate boundary where plate moves away from one another. Volcano Convection Currents Mid- Oceanic Ridge (Rift Valley at Ridge Crest) Oceanic Trench Outer Core Asthenosphere Inner Core (Lower Mantle) Figure 4 Convection Currents Lithosphere (Earth Crust + Upper Mantle) 20 54 A-Quick processes 1- Earth Quakes:- It Is shaking of earth surface, as a result of sudden discharge of energy which is stored in Earths Rock. strain Fault Displacement stress A B Earthquake C Figure 4 Figure4 A- Is show rocks under the stress by tectonic forces in the earth. B- Is show rocks have a bending or deformation shape (Strain). C-Is show rocks are break with discharge of energy is released as Seismic Waves which causes the earthquake. The break of earth Rocks is called Fault with move past one another along a fault. Usually, the energy stored in the rocks is more enough to break the rocks suddenly and making earthquakes. The move of rock through a fault may be vertical or horizontal or both. There are two idea for faulting:1-Classic (Old) idea:-It must be a very large stress acting to break rocks along a fault because the faults are very hard. 2-New idea:- Fault are weak, so little stress is enough to make rupture then earthquakes. 56 21 Rocks behavior near earth surface is brittle, While at depth it subjected to more temperature and pressure, which leads Rocks behave to be ductile rocks. This means there are a limit of depth for faulting. Usually earthquakes are happened with faults displacement, But in some earthquakes are not with urface faults displacement like earthquakes of eastern united states. Earthquakes also happened during volcanic activity. Seismic Waves Epicenter Focus s The source of seismic waves is Focus, While the Epicenter is a point on earths surface vertically above the Focus Figure 5. There are two kinds of seismic waves:A- Body Waves:-It is seismic waves travels through underground rocks in all ways, So it is divided into two types:1- P-Waves (primary):-In this waves, Rocks are shaking front and back parallel to direction of P waves. The properties of this waves are:a-Travel near earths crust at velocity about 6 kilometers per second(figure-6- A). b- P- Waves is faster than other waves. c-It is first reaches the station of recording. d-It can pass through solid, liquid and gas. 22 57 Waves Propagation Particle Motion A A-Primary-W Expand Compress (Figure-7-Surface Waves) (Figure-6-Body Waves) B-Secondary-W Particle Motion Rayleigh Waves Propagation B Waves Propagation 59 23 Constant, Pen Elevation Moving Up Normal Figure 8 Seismograph – Vertical Movement Moving Down Hard Tower Wire Heavy Weight Rotating Drum 61 24 Figure 9 Seismograph Horizontal Movement 1-Distance between Epicenter and London :- 4 min x 60 x 6 km /sec =1440 km 2-Distance between Epicenter and Moscow :- 6 x 60 x 7 km /sec = 2520 km Epicenter 3-Distance between Epicenter and Baghdad :- 11 x 60 x 6 km/sec = 3960 km Moscow London London Earthquake Time-Minute 25 Moscow Baghdad 20 11 minute interval 6 minute interval 15 Surface Waves P 4 minute interval 10 Baghdad 5 1000 2000 3000 Distance From Epicenter (Kilometers) Figure 10 Seismogram 4000 62 25 Figure 11 Location of Earthquakes 2-Volcanoes What is the Volcano? When lava is being viscous and spread out of earth body as a flood, Lava is forming a hill or mountains named a Volcano Figure 12. Table 1 is show characteristic of different type of Volcanoes. Table 1 Types of Volcanoes Type of Volcano Form of Volcano Size 1-Basalt Plateau Flat to gentle Slope 2-Shield Volcano 3-Cinder Cone 4-Caldera Type of Magma Style of Activity Examples Large and thick Basalt Gentle eruption from long fissure Columbia River plateau Slope 2ْ – 6ْ Up to 9000 m high Basalt Gentle, some fire fountains Hawaii Moderate slope 100 - 400 m high Basalt or Andesite Ejections of pyroclastic material Paricutin Mexico Cataclysmic explosion leaving a circular depression Called Caldera Less than 40 km in diameter Granite Very Violent Yellowstone, San Juan Mountains 26 63 Figure 12 Volcano Formation Volcano Volcano Mountain Volcano Pipe Volcano Hill (Extinct) Lava Flow Sill Dike Plutonic Body 64 27 Spreading Center Mid - Oceanic Ridge Sea Level Lithosphere (Earth Crust + Upper Mantle) Oceanic Crust Magma Convection Current Rising Asthenosphere Figure13– Magma of Spreading Center 3- Magma of Subduction Zone:- The subductinn plate of oceanic crust is saturated with water. Through the subduction, the water forming stream into hot asthenosphere, As the subduction plate descends oceanic plate is slip asthenosphere rock down with it Figure 15. Rock from the Deeper part in the Asthenosphere, then flow up word to replace the Sinking Rock, leaving zones of less Pressure at hot Rock rises. Also Friction between Oceanic Crust and Continental crust is Generate heat in Subduction zone. Now water Vapor, less pressure and frictional heating plays together to melt Asthenosphere Rock. Volcanoes and Plutonic Rocks are the Result of Subduction Zone The Pacific North west is example of Volcano, So the Granitic Cliffs of Yosemite and Andes mountains are example of plutonic rocks 66 28 Volcano Extinct Volcanoes Lithosphere Oceanic Crust +Upper Mantle Oceanic Crust Magma Formation (Partial Melting) Rising Mantle Plume Asthenosphere Rising Mantle Plume Figure 14 Magma of Mantle Plume 67 29 Thank You!!