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World History Benchmark Review
AKS 30 Summary
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30a--Summarize the impact of the Neolithic Revolution.
o Neolithic Revolution—Discovery of farming in the fertile crescent about 10,000years ago.
o Allowed people to settle down and live in permanent villages. Gradual end to the hunter/gatherer lifestyle.
o Leads to the development of civilizations.
o 5 Key Traits of a Civilization.
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Cities—center of trade.
30b--Explain how geographic features and cultural diffusion affected the development of ancient Mesopotamia and
ancient Egyptian River Valley civilizations.
o Mesopotamia—Land Between Two Rivers. Tigris and Euphrates
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Mesopotamia is located in a part of the world known as the Fertile Crescent.
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Tigris and Euphrates Rivers flood every year. Unpredictable. Creates fertile land. Very dry during other times
of the year. Had to develop irrigation systems in order to farm.
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No natural barriers to keep out invaders. Had to build walls out of mud bricks.
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Few natural resources. Created a large trading network in order to get the resources they needed.
o
Egypt
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Nile River—Very predictable flood caused from rain and melting snow up stream. Provided fertile soil and
water for irrigation.
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Worshipped the river like a god.
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Desert provided a natural barrier from outside invasion.
30c--Analyze the development of Mesopotamian societies including religious, cultural, economic, and political facets
of society including Hammurabi’s Law Code.
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o Sumer—World’s 1 Civilization
o Religion—Polytheistic—belief in many gods. Priest could communicate with the gods. Ziggurat—temple.
o Culture—Specialized workers. Scribes—professional writers.
o Economic—Barter System—no money yet.
o Political—At first ruled by priests—Theocracy. Later on ruled by tough military leaders—evolved into kings.
o Babylonians--Hammurabi’s Law Code—Law of the Babylonian Empire—282 specific laws. Frequently applied the
principle of retaliation—eye for an eye.
o Assyrians—Very cruel to their conquered peoples. Capital city was Nineveh. Had a very advanced library.
o Persians—Very tolerant to their conquered peoples. Very large empire. Divided the empire into provinces. Each
province was ruled by a satrap (governor). Used a common coin throughout the empire. Excellent road system.
Famous rulers—Cyrus—freed the Jews from Nebuchadnezzar. Darius—effectively governed a huge empire.
30d-- Describe the relationship of religion and political authority in Ancient Egypt.
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Pharaoh was believed to be a god and a king and had the power to control everything.
Pyramids were created for use as tombs for the Pharaohs.
Bodies were preserved through mummification.
30e-- Explain the development of monotheism including the concepts developed by the ancient Hebrews
and Zoroastrians.
o Monotheism—belief in one God.
o Hebrews (Jews)
 Abraham promised to obey God. God in turned promised to protect Abraham and his
people. Covenant.
 Hebrews migrated to Egypt and were enslaved. Moses was commanded by God to lead the Jews
out of Egypt.
 10 Commandments—New Covenant with God.
 3 Jewish Kings—Saul, David, Solomon
 Kingdom divides—Israel in the north. Judah in the south.
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o
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Jews were attacked by the Babylonian King Nebuchadnezzar. Many of the Jews were exiled to
Babylon—Babylonian Captivity.
 Holy Book of the Jews—Torah (Old Testament of the Holy Bible)
Zoroastrians
 Old religion of the Persian Empire. Present day Iran.
 The concept of Satan and Heaven and Hell came from this religion.
 Taught that earth was a battleground between good and evil.
 Believed people are free to choose good over evil.
30f-- Identify and examine early trading networks and writing systems existent in the Eastern Mediterranean
including those of the Phoenicians
o Minoans
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Lived on the Island of Crete in Mediterranean Sea. Excellent traders. Advanced capital city at Knossus. Had a
major impact on Greek culture.
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Phonecians
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Became very wealthy by trading purple dye from snails. Also had many ships.
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Set up trading posts all around the Mediterranean Sea.
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Probably even sailed all the way around Africa.
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Trade Routes
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Several land routes crossed Central Asia and connected to India through Afghanistan.
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Two sea routes began by crossing the Arabian Sea to ports on the Persian Gulf and the Red Sea.
30g--Explain the development and importance of writing systems including cuneiform and Phoenician alphabet.
o Cuneiform—writing system of Sumer. World’s first writing system.
o Heiroglyphics—writing system of Egypt.
o Phoenician Alphabet—fewer symbols. Symbols represent sounds. Used to record business transactions quickly.
Predecessor to the Greek, Roman, and English alphabets. Basically invented our alphabet.
AKS 31 Summary
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31a-- Explain how geographic features and cultural diffusion affected the development of the ancient Indian and
ancient Chinese River Valley civilizations.
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India
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China
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Separated from rest of Asia by Hindu Kush and Himalayas. Called a subcontinent.
Two major rivers—Indus and Ganges
Center of the peninsula—Deccan Plateau
Weather dominated by seasonal winds known as monsoons.
Somewhat isolated from all other civilizations. Surrounded by Yellow Sea, East China Sea, Pacific Ocean,
Taklimakan Desert, Plateau of Tibet, Himalayas, Gobi Desert and Mongolian Plateau.
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Major Rivers
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Huang He—Yellow River (from yellowish silt called loess)—China’s Sorrow. Early Chinese
civilization developed on the banks of this river.
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Chang Jiang—Yangtze
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Very fertile soil in the area between these two rivers. Best farmland in Chinese territory.
China and India had little contact with each other because of the Himalayas.
31b--Analyze the development of Indian civilization including the rise and fall of the Maurya Empire, “Golden Age”
under Gupta, and the emperor Asoka.
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Harappan Civilization
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Oldest Indian Civilization. Developed on the Indus River. Also known as the Indus River Valley civilization.
Harrapa was one of the major cities of the civilization.
o
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31c-- Explain the development and impact of Hinduism and Buddhism on India and subsequent diffusion of
Buddhism.
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We don’t know a whole lot about them because we cannot decipher their writing.
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Links to Hinduism have been found in this area.
Aryans Migrate In
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See Hinduism below.
Mauryan Empire
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First great Indian Empire. Led by Chandragupta Maurya. Waged war to extend his empire. His people paid
high taxes.
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Asoka—Chandragupta’s grandson. Was warlike at first. But later converted to Buddhism after he had the
village of Kalinga slaughtered and showed that he was concerned about his people’s well-being. He worked
to improve tolerance throughout his empire. The empire fell apart after his death.
Gupta Empire
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India’s second empire. Oversaw a flowering of Indian civilization—especially Hindu culture. Time of great
achievement in the arts, religious thought, and science. Introduction of Algebra in mathematics, and the
concept of ZERO.
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Chandra Gupta—Came to power by marrying the daughter of an influential family. Called the Great King of
Kings. No relation to Chandragupta Maurya.
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Samudra—son of Chandra Gupta—lover of the arts, but also very warlike.
Aryans
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Indo-Europeans who crossed into the Indus River Valley.
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We get our information about them through their sacred literature called the Vedas.
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Caste system develops to keep the Aryans separated from the much darker Indians.
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Brahmins, Kshatryias, Vaishyas, Sudras
Hinduism Develops
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Mixture of Aryan and Indus Valley beliefs.
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Brahman is the mighty spirit that is one spirit but has many parts
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Brahman ties all nature together
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Atman is the human soul. It cannot be seen but is present and is part of Brahman.
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Reincarnation is the process of life, death, and rebirth during which a soul strives for perfection. A soul may
be reborn many times.
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Moksha is the final stage of life when a soul achieves perfection and becomes one with Brahman.
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Dharma—duty of each caste.
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Kharma—good behavior will be rewarded in next reincarnation.
Buddhism
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Siddhartha Gautama-- A great Indian religious leader better known as Buddha (the enlightened one)
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He believed and taught that the lowborn can gain enough wisdom to escape the cycle of life, death, and
rebirth
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At first he sought wisdom/enlightenment through pain and suffering
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He concluded that the way to end all pain and suffering was to end all selfish desire,
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Buddhism’s main ideas—Four Noble Truths.
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Nirvana—goal of all Buddhists.
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Way to reach Nirvana—follow the Eightfold Path.
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Never did grow too much in India. Became a major religion in East Asia. Spread through trade. Cultural
diffusion.
31d--Describe the development of Chinese civilization under the Zhou, Qin, and Han Dynasties.
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Zhou--Justified their take over with the Mandate of Heaven.
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Established a system known as feudalism to govern such a large area.
Longest dynasty
Improvements in Technology and Trade:
Roads and canals built.
Coined money was introduced.
Cast iron was developed.
Period of civil war and Chaos
Noble families of the feudal system competed for power.
Known as the “time of warring states”
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Qin
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Shi Huangdi—Legalist emperor who ended the chaos left over from the Zhou dynast
Shi Huangdi—“First Emperor”
Put an end to the internal battles that had sapped China’s strength.
Doubled the size of China through invasion.
Was determined to unify China.
Wanted to crush political opposition at home. Forced all noble families to live in the capital city under his careful watch.
Seized the nobles land. Carved China into 36 administrative districts controlled by Qin officials.
Very harsh rule-killed all opponents and burned books. Example—Confucian scholars.
Great Wall was built.
Harsh taxes and repressive government made the Qin regime unpopular.
Replaced by the Han.
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Time of glory, unity, and peace.
Dynasty so influenced China that today, many call themselves “People of the Han”
Liu Bang—1st emperor of the Han dynasty.
Ch’in laws repealed.
Lowered taxes and softened harsh punishments.
Empress Lu—Liu Bang’s wife who was the power behind the throne when he died.
Wudi—Liu Bang’s grandson. Known as the “Martial Emperor” because of his success in battle. Colonized Manchuria,
Vietnam, and Korea.
People had to take an exam over the teachings of Confucius to gain a job in the civil service
New inventions—paper, new horse harness, new plow.
Great Silk Road—trading route between China and Persian Empire.
Han
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31e--Explain the impact of Confucianism on Chinese culture including the Examination system, the Mandate of
Heaven, the status of peasants, gender status, the status of merchants, and the patriarchal family and the diffusion of
Chinese culture to Southeast Asia, Japan and Korea.
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Confucianism
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Confucius—one of China’s most influential scholars.
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Believed that social order, harmony, and good government could be restored in China if society were
organized around five basic relationships. 3 of the 5 based on family.
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Stressed that children should practice filial piety—respect for their parents and ancestors.
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Confucius believed that education could change a commoner into a gentleman.
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Confucianism was never a religion, but it was an ethical system, a system based on accepted principles of right
and wrong.
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Became the foundation for Chinese government and social order.
Examination System
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People seeking jobs in the Chinese government took formal examinations in history, law, literature, and
Confucianism. Had to do well on the exams to get a job in the Chinese government.
Mandate of Heaven
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Approval to rule from the gods. Emperor was considered divine (gods liked him and gave him power).
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Wicked or foolish ruler could lose the Mandate of Heaven.
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Floods, riots, and other calamities might be signs that the ancestral spirits were displeased with a king’s rule.
Status of Peasants
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Chinese peasants owed part of their yearly crops to the government.
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Peasants also owed the gov’t a month’s worth of labor or military service every year.
Gender Status
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Women were inferior. Expected to obey their fathers, their husbands, and later, their own sons.
Status of Merchants
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Near the bottom of China’s class structure. There occupation was seen by many as the least important
occupation.
Patriarchal Family
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Family was central to Chinese society.
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Most important virtue—respect for one’s parents.
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Elder men in the family controlled the family’s property and made important decisions.
Diffusion of Chinese Culture to SE Asia, Japan and Korea
 Wudi colonized areas to the northeast, now known as Manchuria and Korea.
 He also set up colonies to the south in present day Vietnam.
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Chinese culture diffused to its colonies.
AKS 32 Summary
Greek Geography
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Sea played an important role in Ancient Greece. Peninsula surrounded by water (Greeks were said to have lived “around
the seas.”) Became excellent sailors.
Land—very mountainous, lacked fertile farmland and natural resources. Had to trade for food and resources. Led to the
development of tiny, independent city-states.
Climate—mild climate leads to an outdoor lifestyle.
Greek Civilization
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Minoan Civilization
o Island of Crete
o Excellent traders
o Bull-jumping, minotaur—bull important part of their culture.
Mycenaean Civilization
o Time period of Trojan War
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Dorian Migrations
o Less educated distant cousins of the Mycenaens. Spoke a dialect of Greek.
o Could not read/write. Dark Ages.
o Time period when Homer (Iliad and Odyssey) lived.
 Greek City-States Develop
o Polis—Greek word for city-state.
o Acropolis—every city-state had one of these fortified hilltops.
o Different city-states had different ways of governing and doing things (due to mountainous geography)
o Athens—Democracy—rule by the people. Reforms of Cleisthenes.
o Sparta—Military State—life revolved around the military.
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Messenian revolt.
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Begin building military.
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Weak babies killed.
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Training starts at age 7.
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“Come home with your shield or on it.”
Persian Invasions
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Phalanx—Greek fighting force. 8 rows of 8.
 1s Invasion—Darius the Great
o Marathon and Pheidippides.
o Persians are defeated by army of Athenians.
nd
 2 Invasion--Xerxes
o Thermopylae—300 Spartans fight to the death.
o Athens is then destroyed.
o Athenians eventually defeat the Persians at the Battle of Salamis.
o Persians are unsuccessful in both invasions.
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Delian League is Created—like the United Nations of Greece. Athens is the leader. It was formed by the Greek city-states to
try to prevent future Persian attacks.
Athens Golden Age
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Time period of “classical art,” invention of drama, and the ideas of Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle
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Athens is led by Pericles
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Stronger Democracy
o Athenian Empire—built a Navy
o Glorifying Athens—built the Parthenon for the goddess of wisdom--Athena
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Spent a lot of Delian League money on Athens alone
Peloponnesian War
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War between Sparta (army) and Athens (navy)
 Sparta wins.
Greek Religion
 Polytheistic
 Gave their gods human characteristics.
 Lived on Mt. Olympus
 Zeus—most powerful god
Philosophers(Lived During Athens Golden Age)
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Socrates—put to death for corrupting the youth of Athens. Encouraged students to question everything. Socratic
Method—teaching by asking questions.
 Plato—Wrote the Republic.
 Aristotle—syllogism. Taught Alexander the Great.
Macedonians Take Over Greece and Create an Empire
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Phillip, King of the Macedonians, conquers Greece. Ex-wife has him murdered so her son can be king.
 Alexander the Great—Defeats Darius III (Persian Empire) and builds his own empire all the way to present day India before
turning back. Spreads Greek culture throughout his empire.
 Causes a blend of Greek and Persian cultures known as Hellenism.
Hellenistic Culture
 Alexandria—city in Egypt that became the center of Hellenistic culture.
 Aristarchus—
o Proposed Sun was at least 300 times larger than the earth. On the right track but way off.
o Proposed that Earth and other planets revolved around the sun.
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Eratosthenes
o Tried to calculate the earth’s true size using geometry. Well relatively accurate.
 Archimedes
o Came up with the value of pi and levers.
 Euclid
o Father of Geometry
 Pythagoras
2
2
2
o A + B =C
Roman Geography
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Rome located on the Tiber River.
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Located near the center of the Italian peninsula.
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Also near the midpoint of the Mediterranean Sea.
Earliest Romans
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Latins—built the original settlement at Rome
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Greeks—set up colonies in southern Italy.
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Etruscans—native to northern Italy.
Early Republic
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Romans drive their last king from power in 509 B.C. and declare that they will never be ruled by a king again.
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Set up a Republic—form of gov’t in which power rests with citizens who have the right to vote for their leaders.
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Two Social Classes
o Patricians—wealthy landowners. Held most of the power.
o Plebeians—Commoners. Much larger group.
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Twelve Tables—Plebeians forced Patricians to create this written code of laws.
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Roman Republic
o 2 Consuls—1 year terms, could veto each other.
o Senate—Probably the branch of the republic with the most power. Each senator can serve for the rest of his life.
Made up of Patricians.
o Assembly—Plebeians.
o Dictator—only during times of crisis.
Rome Spreads its Power
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Rome had powerful army broken up into Legions and Centuries. All citizens who owned land were required to serve.
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Conquer Italian Peninsula first.
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Battle Carthage in the Punic Wars for control of the Mediterranean Sea.
o 3 Wars
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o Hannibal and Scipio—2 Punic War
o Rome wins the Punic Wars
Republic Collapses
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Gap between rich and poor widens.
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Many poor farmers lost their land. Added to Rome’s homeless population.
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Tiberius and Gaius Gracchus—tried to reform Rome to help the poor. Leads to Civil War.
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Military Upheaval—Generals begin recruiting from the landless poor.
Julius Caesar
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Roman General who rose to power with the help of Pompey and Crassus the Rich.
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Elected consul in 59 B.C.
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Served only one year as consul, but ruled Rome with the other two men for 10 years. First Triumvirate
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Served as governor of Gaul.
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Civil War between Caesar and Pompey. Caesar wins.
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Caesar is named dictator for life.
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As dictator, he created more jobs and found land for Rome’s poor.
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44 B.C.—Assassinated by a group of Senators. They feared he had too much power. Led by Marcus and Brutus.
Roman Empire
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Second Triumvirate—three avengers of Caesar
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Octavian
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Marc Antony—married Octavian’s sister
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Lepidus
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Octavian vs Antony
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Battle of Actium (31 B.C.)—Cleopatra and Marc Antony commit suicide.
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Octavian becomes sole ruler. Believed that Rome should be led by an emperor.
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takes on the title First Citizen
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then takes on the title Augustus—meaning exalted one—Augustus was the first emperor
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No longer a Republic. Now the Roman Empire.
A Vast and Powerful Empire
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Beginning with the rule of Augustus in 27 B.C through A.D. 180, this 207 year period of peace and prosperity is known as the Pax
Romana.
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A Sound Government
o Augustus set of a civil service—paid workers who managed the affairs of government.
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Agriculture and Trade
o About 90% of people engaged in farming.
o Denarius—common coin of the empire.
o Network of roads helped trading across the vast empire.
The Roman World
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Slaves and Captivity
o About 1/3 of population were slaves. Treated like private property.
o Some slaves were trained as gladiators.
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Gods and Goddesses
o Religion and government were closely linked. By worshipping the Roman gods, you were showing respect to the
government
o Many of the Roman gods came from the Greeks. They simply changed their names(example of cultural
diffusion). For example, the Greek god Zeus, became the Roman god, Jupiter.
o People were also asked to worship the emperor.
Spread of Christianity
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Jesus lived and died in the Roman Empire
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News of the Resurrection increased the spread of Jesus’s teachings.
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Paul-spent his life spreading the teachings of Jesus throughout the Roman Empire.
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Roman rulers faced problems from both Christians and Jews because neither were willing to worship the emperor as a
god. Neither were willing to worship the Roman gods.
st
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Constantine—1 Emperor to become a Christian.
o Edict of Milan—declared Christianity to be one of the religions approved by the emperor.
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Theodosius—Emperor who made Christianity the official religion.
Roman Empire Collapse
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Economic Problems
o Barbarians and pirates disrupted trade.
o Running out of gold and silver.
o Coins with less and less silver.
o Leads to serious inflation.
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Military and Political Turmoil
o Roman soldiers had become less disciplined and loyal. Their loyalty was to whichever general paid them the most.
o Gov’t began hiring foreign soldiers as mercenaries. Felt very little loyalty towards Rome.
o Citizens lost feelings of patriotism as well. Earlier in the Republic, Romans gladly sacrificed their lives for their
government. Did not care anymore.
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Diocletian Reforms the Empire—284 B.C.
o Divided the empire into two parts. Greek-speaking east and Latin-speaking west. He took the east and appointed a coruler for the west.
o Due to health problems, Diocletian retired and civil war broke out. Four men competed for power, one was
Constantine.
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Constantine Moves the Capital
o Moved capital from Rome to Byzantium. Better location. Crossroads of trade.
o After the death of Constantine, the east would survive. The west would collapse.
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Due to the Reforms of Diocletian and Constantine, the western half of the empire declined.
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The Western Empire Crumbles
o Germanic Invasions. Were successful because the Roman Army was much weaker than it was during the Pax
Romana.
o A.D. 370—Huns—Mongol nomads from central Asia move into the region.
o To get away from the Huns, the Germanic tribes were pushed into the Roman Empire. The Western Empire was unable
to field an army to stop them.
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An Empire No More
o Last Roman Emperor was a 14 yr old boy named Romulus Augustulus and was ousted by the Germanic barbarians in
476 A.D.
o Roman power in the west disappeared.
o Eastern half survived and became known as the Byzantine Empire. Did very well.
Roman Contributions
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Literature/History
o Virgil—Aeneid
o Livy--Historian
o Tacitus—Historian
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Latin—Romance languages
Aqueducts
Dome and arch
Concrete—Roman Coliseum is a prime example of Roman engineering because it incorporated the use of concrete and arches.
Roman Law
AKS 33 Summary
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33a--Analyze the relationship of the Byzantine Empire to the Roman Empire
o Eastern Half of the Old Roman Empire survives and becomes known as the Byzantine Empire. Capital—
Constantinople.
o Still considered themselves Roman even though they spoke Greek instead of Latin.
o Emperors considered themselves rightful rulers of all lands Rome ever held.
33b--Describe the significance of Justinian's law code, Theodora and the role of women, and Byzantine art and
architecture
o Justinian’s Law Code
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Justinian was a Byzantine Emperor
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Set up a panel of legal experts to regulate Byzantium’s increasingly complex society.
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Created a single, uniform code known as the Justinian Code. Preserved the importance of the Roman laws.
o Theodora—Justinian’s wife.
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Most powerful woman in Byzantine history. Met with foreign envoys, wrote to foreign leaders, passed laws, and built
churches. Even confiscated the property of General Belisarius during one crisis situation.
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Actions of Theodora enabled women to enjoy improved status in the Byzantine Empire.
o
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Architecture
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Hagia Sophia-- Many believed it was the most splendid church in the Christian world.
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Hippodrome—The Coliseum of Constantinople.
33c--Analyze the establishment of Christianity as the official religion of the Byzantine Empire
o Christianity becomes the official religion of the Byzantine Empire because it spread there from the Roman Empire.
It eventually becomes known as the Eastern Orthodox Church.
o Bishop of Constantinople is known as the Patriarch.
o Religious leader of Constantinople is the Byzantine Emperor.
33d--Analyze the role of Constantinople as a trading and religious center
o Trading
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Located at the crossroads of two trade routes. A land trade route and a water trade route.
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Mese—Main Street right in the middle of the city. Merchants crowded the main street and side street with goods
from all over the world.
o
Religion
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When the Russians and other Slavic groups converted to Christianity, they looked to Constantinople and its
Hagia Sophia for religious guidance.
33e--Explain the influence of the Byzantine Empire and Vikings on Russia with particular attention to its impact on
Tsar Ivan III and Kiev
o Slavic people in present day Russia invited the Vikings (Rus) to be their leaders and protectors. Vikings and Slavic
people intermarried. Created the Russian culture.
st
o Kiev—1 major city in Russian history. Originally its capital. Traded with the Byzantine Empire in Constantinople.
Christian city that looked to Constantinople for religious guidance.
o How did Moscow become the Capital of the Russian Empire?
o Ivan III—Ruling prince of Moscow who led the Russian revolt against the Mongols. Led to a bloodless standoff at
the Ugra River. Russians became independent.
33f--Define the role of Orthodox Christianity and the Schism.
o Over time, Christians in Rome and Christians in Constantinople developed differences in belief.
o Roman Christians recognized the Pope as their religious leader. Byzantine Christians recognized their emperor as their
religious leader.
o Also debate over the use of Icons in worship. Byzantine Emperor banned icons. Pope said they were okay.
o
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1054—Pope (in Rome) and Patriarch (in Constantinople) excommunicate each other.
Kick
each other out of the church.
33g--Evaluate the impact of the Mongols on the Eurasian Continent.
o Mongols were a ferocious group of horsemen. Known for their use of cavalry.
o Savage killing and burning won them a reputation for ruthless brutality.
o Held Russia captive for 200 years. Caused Russia to fall behind the rest of Europe.
o Demanded two things: absolute obedience and massive amounts of tribue.
o Isolated the Russians more than ever from their neighbors in Western Europe.
33h—Analyze the spread of the Mongol Empire; include the role of Chinggis (Genghis) Khan in developing the empire,
the impact of the Mongols on Russia, China, and the west, the development of trade (including the Silk Road), and
European observations through the writings of Marco Polo.
o Temujin—Genghis Khan—united the Mongol clans. Began building an empire.
o Set his sights on China first. Then began attacking the Muslim Empire.
o Successful conqueror because—used cruelty as weapon, gifted military strategist, gifted at organizing his military.
o Conquered an empire that stretched from China to Poland.
o Conquered Kiev and Russia and held that land for 200 years. Isolated Russia from the rest of Europe and held them
back while other Europeans made many advances.
o Kublai Khan—Genghis’s grandson who finished conquering China. Set up his own dynasty called the Yuan. Tried to
conquer Japan also but failed.
o Marco Polo—European who worked for Kublai Khan in his government for 17 years. Then returned to Europe and told
people what all he saw.
o Kublai Khan encouraged trade on the Great Silk Roads.
33i—Explain the Ottoman Empire’s role in the decline of Byzantium and the capture of Constantinople in 1453 CE.
o Muslim Ottoman Turks had learned how to use gunpowder. Started with guns and then began using cannons.
o
Mehmed II and his Ottoman army, thanks to these cannons, were able to capture Constantinople in 1453. Renamed the
city Istanbul.
AKS 34 Summary


34a - Explain the origins of Islam and the growth of the Islamic Empire
o Arabian Peninsula is a crossroads of 3 continents. Arabian Peninsula was a crossroads of trade and ideas. Connected
Mediterranean Sea and Indian Ocean trade routes
o Muhammad--Born in 570—orphaned at age 6. Raised by uncle and grandfather.
o Became a trader and business manager for Khadijah, a wealthy businesswoman. Married her.
o Traveled to Syria to trade. Spoke to Christians and Jews about monotheism.
o Very interested in religion—prayed and meditated often.
o When he was about 40, he was meditating in a cave outside of Mecca and he had a vision. The angel Gabriele told him
he was a messenger of God.
o Began preaching publicly in Mecca in 613. He was slow to gain popularity. He faced some hostility. His teachings were
bad for business.
o Hijrah—Arabic word for “flight.” To get away from the hostility, Muhammad and his followers fled to Yathrib
(Medina.)
o Muhammad attracted many followers. Religion became known as Islam, which means “submission to the will of Allah.”
Believers were called Muslims, which means “one who has submitted.”
o Muhammad and his army of followers defeated the Meccans and marched into the city. Destroyed all of the idols and
left the black stone.
o Muhammad died 2 years later—62.
o The Five Pillars of Islam--To be a Muslim, all believers have to carry out five duties.

Faith—accept Allah as god and Muhammad as his prophet

Prayer—5 times a day. May be at a mosque (house of worship)

Alms—portion of their wealth to the poor

Fasting-- the whole month of Ramadan

Pilgrimage—go to Mecca 1 time in your life. Known as the hajj. Fostered trade and faith throughout
the empire.
o
Holy Book—Qu’ran—Written in Arabic the official language of Islam.
o Sharia-- System of law that regulates the family life, moral conduct and business and community life of Muslims. These laws
still govern many parts of the Muslim world today.
o Rightly Guided Caliphs—Abu-Bakr, Umar, Uthman, and Ali

Caliph—successor to the prophet.

They used the Qu’ran and Muhammad’s actions as guides to leadership

They invoked jihad (armed struggle against unbelievers) to expand the Islamic Empire through conquest.

Qu’ran forbade forced conversion. Muslims allowed conquered peoples to follow their own religion.

34b - Identify the Muslim trade routes to India, China, Europe and Africa and assess the economic impact of this trade
o Two major sea-trading networks existed—Mediterranean Sea and Indian Ocean.
o Muslim empire could engage in sea trade with the rest of the world.
o Land network connected the Silk Roads of China and India with Europe and Africa.
o Trade also helped to spread Islam.
o Islamic empire grew very wealthy from this trade.
34c - Explain the reasons for the split between Sunni and Shia Muslims
o There was a disagreement over who should succeed Muhammad.
o Sunni—Believed that the first four caliphs were “rightly guided”. Believed that Muslim rulers should follow the Sunna,
or Muhammad’s example. Claim that the Shi’a have distorted the meaning of various passages in Qur’an.
o Shi’a—Believed that Ali, the Prophet’s son-in-law, should have succeeded Muhammad. Believed that all Muslim rulers
should be descended from Muhammad. Claim that the Sunni have distorted the meaning of various passages in the
Qur’an.
34d - identify the contributions of Islamic scholars in culture, innovations, and the preservation of Classical
knowledge to include: medicine (Ibn Sina), geography (Ibn Battuta), origins, and the basic tenants of Islam
o Islamic Empire did not go through the Dark Ages like Medieval Europe. Islamic Empire remained very advanced.
o Muslim scholars translated the works of the Greeks and Romans into Arabic. Later they were translated back into
European languages. Much of the Greek and Roman writings would be lost if not for the Islamic scholars.
o Ibn Sina-- also known as Avicenna—wrote a five volume encyclopedia that guided doctors of Europe and SW Asia for
six centuries.


o


Ibn Battuta-- Ibn Battuta—Born in 1304 in Morocco, spent his entire adult life traveling though Muslim lands. One of
the greatest travelers in history.
o Examples of Muslim architecture can be found in Spain today. Evidence that Spain was once part of a Muslim Empire.
34e - analyze the impact of the expansion of the Mongol Empire to include the stabilization of trading networks from
China to the Mediterranean world and the decline of the Islamic Empires
o Were able to conquer much of Asia due to a lack of geographic barriers.
o
Pax Mongolica—Mongol Peace. Mongols guaranteed safe passage for trade caravans, travelers, and missionaries from
one end of the empire to another. Its collapse caused disorder.
o Trade between Europe and Asia had never been more active.
o Led to stabilization of trading networks from China to the Mediterranean world.
o Genghis Khan attacked Muslim controlled parts of Asia because Muslims murdered Mongol traders and an ambassador.
34f - analyze the relationship between Judaism, Christianity, and Islam
o Christians and Muslims both can trace their origins back to the Jews (Hebrews).
o Allah—Muhammad believed that Allah was the same god as the God of the Christians and Jews. He believed that he
was the last and greatest of the prophets.
o Muslims view Jesus as a prophet, not the son of God.
o To Muslims, the Qur’an was the final book and Muhammad was the final prophet.
o All three religions believe in a heaven and hell and a day of judgment and 10 Commandments.
o Muslims refer to Christians and Jews as “people of the book”
o Muslim law requires leaders to extend religious tolerance to Christians and Jews.
AKS 35 Summary

35a - identify the Bantu migration patterns and contribution to settled agriculture
o Development of farming led to permanent settlements and the specialization of labor.
o Bantu-speaking peoples—the speakers of a related group of languages who, beginning about 2,000 years ago, migrated
from West Africa into most of the southern half of Africa.
o Bantu speakers were not one people but a group of people who shared certain cultural characteristics. Farmers and
nomadic herders who developed the skill of iron smelting. Probably related to the Nok peoples.
o Beginning around 2000 years ago, Bantu farmers began moving south and east due to their farming techniques—slash
and burn agriculture.
o Moved into new environments and adapted their farming techniques.
o Farmed the riverbanks along the Congo River and in the rainforests.
o As they moved to the savannas, they began herding goats and sheep and raising cattle. Wherever they moved, they
adapted.
o Causes of Migration

Experts believe that with the development of farming, populations began to increase. Began running out of
farmland, so they moved to find new land.

They probably took with them the ability to smelt iron. As they moved, they looked for places that had iron
ore and hardwood to make charcoal.
o Effects of Migration

When Bantu speakers settled an area, changes occurred.

The Bantu often settled in places that were already inhabited. Could lead to confrontations. The Bantu
usually won because of their iron weapons compared to the stone weapons of the hunter-gatherers they were
fighting with.

Bantu speakers exchanged ideas and intermarried with the people they joined. This led to new cultures with
unique customs and traditions.

Brought new farming techniques, knowledge about iron working, and new ideas about gov’t.

35b - describe the development and decline of the Sudanic Kingdoms (Ghana, Mali, Songhai) including the roles of
Sundiata, and the pilgrimage of Mansa Musa to Mecca
o
Ghana
o
Gold-Salt Trade—helped West African Kingdoms become very powerful.

Two most important trade items.

Until 1350—probably about 2/3 of all gold came from West Africa.

No salt however. The Sahara had plenty of salt.

Arab traders brought salt and other goods from Mediterranean ports down to the market towns on the
savanna.

African traders brought gold north from the forests.

o
o
Land of Gold

By 800 A.D., Ghana had become an empire.

King controlled trade and commanded a large army.

King was a religious leader, chief judge, and military commander.

Kept value of gold high by limiting the supply. Kept much of the gold out of circulation.
Islamic Influences

Islam spread south of the Sahara through trade.

Eventually, Ghana’s rulers converted to Islam.

Most people never converted. Many who did held on to their animist beliefs as well.

Islam’s growth encouraged literacy—they wanted to learn to read so they could study the Qur’an. Learned
how to read Arabic.
Outside invasion disrupted the gold-salt trade, and Ghana never regained its power.
o
Mali—Islam spread through trade.
o
New sources of gold were found to the east. Trade routes shifted to the east, right through Mali territory. Allowed them to
become wealthy and seize power.
Sundiata Conquers an Empire

Sundiata was Mali’s first great leader who came to power by crushing a cruel, unpopular leader. Became the mansa,
or emperor.

Conquered the kingdom of Ghana and the cities of Kumbi and Walata.

Was a great leader in peace. Put able administrators in charge of finances, defense, and foreign affairs.

Reestablished the gold-salt trade.
Mansa Musa Expands Mali

Sundiata died in 1255. Some of Mali’s next rulers became Muslims. The most famous was Mansa Musa, who may
have been Sundiata’s grandnephew. Ruled from 1312—1332.

Skilled military leader. Protected gold-salt trade and put down every rebellion. His empire expanded to twice the size
of the empire of Ghana.

Divided his empire into provinces and appointed governors to rule fairly and efficiently.

As a devout Muslim, he went on a hajj to Mecca. On the trip, he gave away enormous amounts of gold. Because of
this, Europeans learned of Mali’s wealth. When returned, he ordered the building of new mosques at the trading
cities of Timbuktu and Gao.

Timbuktu becomes one of the most important cities of the empire.
Within 50 years, the once powerful empire began to weaken as the gold trade shifted east again.
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o

Songhai—Islam spread through trade
As Mali declined in the 1400’s, people who had been under its control began to break away.
One group, the Songhai, gained control of the all-important trade routes. Gao was the capital.
Sunni Ali, a Conquering Hero

Songhai ruler who built a vast empire through military conquest.

Had a riverboat fleet of war canoes and a very mobile calvary.
Askia Muhammad Governs Well

After Sunni Ali’s death in 1492, a group of Muslims revolted against his son who did not practice Islam faithfully. The
leader of the revolt was Askia Muhammad, and he drove Sunni Ali out of power and replaced him as leader.

Ruled for 37 years. Set up an efficient tax system and chose able officials to help him govern. Under his rule, the
empire thrived.
Songhai empire lacked modern weapons.
1591—invaded by Moroccans who had gunpowder and cannons. They defeated the Songhai who were only equipped with
swords and spears.
35c - describe the trading networks by examining trans-Saharan trade in gold, salt, and slaves including the Swahili
trading cities
o Gold/Salt Trade

West Africans had plenty of gold. Arab traders could get plenty of salt. West Africans traded their gold for
salt.

Whoever controlled the gold salt-trade ruled the region.
o Arab Muslim traders exported enslaved persons from the East African coast.

Were kidnapped and sent to markets in Arabia, Persia, and Iraq.

Used for domestic tasks (house slaves), soldiers, dock hands.
o East Coast Trade Cities

Arab traders began visiting the East Coast of Africa.

Bantu speaking Africans were living along the East Coast.



What happens to language when a population consists of two different groups of people who speak different
languages? You get a blending. Like Spanglish or the Creole language of Haiti.
Swahili is a blend of the Bantu language with Arabic. These cities are sometimes called Swahili trading cities.
35d - analyze the process of religious syncretism as a blending of traditional African beliefs (animism) with new ideas
from Islam and Christianity
o What is syncretism?

Fusion (combination) of differing systems of belief. Often takes place when foreign beliefs are introduced
to a native belief system and the teachings are blended.
o What is animism?

The belief that spirits are present in animals, plants, and other natural objects. Common belief among native
Africans.
o Early African Religions

Was no one widespread religion. Many local religions.

Nearly all local religions involved a belief in one creator, or god.

Also generally included elements of animism.
o
Wherever Africans came into contact with Muslims (North Africa and the East Coast of Africa), either through trade or
war, there was usually a blending of the native African religion with Islam.
o Wherever Africans came into contact with Christians (think of all the African countries that speak a European
language), there was usually a blending of the native African religion with Christianity.
-------Interim Tests------AKS 37 Summary

37a - explain and differentiate the manorial system and feudalism, to include the status of peasants and feudal
monarchies and the importance of Charlemagne

Middle Ages—Also known as Mediveval Period. A new society emerged that had roots in:
1.
Classical heritage of Rome.
2. Beliefs of Roman Catholic Church.
3. Customs of various Germanic tribes.
Invasions of Western Europe
 Fifth century, Western Roman Empire suffered from repeated invasions and constant warfare. Led to the following changes:
o Disruption of Trade—Invasions from land and sea. Businesses collapse. Money became scarce.
o Downfall of Cities—Cities were abandoned as centers of administration.
o Population Shifts—Gradually, people started abandoning the decaying cities to live in rural areas.
o Decline of Learning--Germanic invaders could not read or write. Even the Roman’s levels of education sank as they
moved into rural areas. Church officials and few others are only people who were literate. Greek knowledge was almost
lost. Germanic tribes had a rich oral tradition but no written language.
o Loss of Common Language--Latin changed as German speakers moved in. It was still the official language, but no
longer understood. Different dialects led to new languages—Romance or Latin-based.
Germanic Kingdoms Emerge
 400-600 A.D.—small German kingdoms replaced Roman provinces. Borders changed constantly due to war. Church did not
collapse like Rome, and it provided order and security to a lawless war-torn region.


Franks controlled the largest and strongest kingdom, formerly Gaul, present day France.
o Early leader was Clovis--brought Christianity to the region.
o Clovis getting beat in battle. Prayed to the Christian god. Won the war. Clovis and 3,000 of his warriors were baptized
and become Christians. Began a partnership between the Franks and the Christian Church.
Charles Martel Emerges
o By 700, most important person in the Frankish Kingdom was the mayor of the palace or the major domo.
o Mayor of the palace in 719—Charles Martel--held more power than the King. Became a Christian hero after he defeated
the Muslims at the Battle of Tours.
o After his death, Charles Martel passed his power down to his son, Pepin the Short. Pepin agreed to fight the Lombards
if the Pope would name him king. Pope anointed him “king by the grace of God.” Began the Carolingian Dynasty.
Charlemagne Becomes Emperor
 Pepin dies in 768. Passes his power to his son, Charles. Becomes known as Charlemagne or Charles the Great.

Charlemagne Extends Frankish Rule
o Charles built an empire greater than any known since ancient Rome.
o Led his armies each summer fighting Muslims or other Germanic Kingdoms.
o Spread Christianity and reunited Western Europe. (Basically reunited the western half of the old Roman Empire.)
o 800—Went to Rome to help out the Pope who had been attacked by an unruly mob. In gratitude, the Pope
crowned him the “Roman Emperor.” Angered Byzantine Emperor who believed he was the true Roman
Emperor.
Charlemagne Leads a Revival
o Strengthened his power by limiting the authority of his nobles.
o Powerful landowners were called counts, and they ruled their county. Charlemagne sent out royal agents to make sure
the counts weren’t abusing their power.
o One of his greatest accomplishments was the encouragement of learning.
Charlemagne’s Heirs
o Grandsons fought for control of his empire.
o Treaty of Verdun—decided to divide their grandfather’s empire into three parts.


Feudalism
 The feudal system was a political and social system. A related system governed medieval economics. This system was called the
manorial system because it was built around large estates called manors.
 Feudalism
o Because of invasions from Vikings, Magyars and Muslims, many people turned to feudalism. System of governing
based on the holding of land.
o Wealthy landowner was called a lord. He would give away pieces of land called fiefs. The person receiving the land was
the vassal. The lord would give away his land in exchange for military protection.
 The Feudal Pyramid
o At the top was the King.
o Most powerful landowning vassals such as nobles and bishops.
o Then came the knights. Professional soldiers who prepared for war all year.
o Landless peasants who worked the fields.
 Social Classes are Well Defined
o Status determined a person’s prestige and power.
o Those who fought (nobles and knights), those who prayed (men and women of the church), and those who worked (the
peasants). Social class was usually inherited.
o Vast majority of people were peasants. Most peasants were serfs. Serf was not a slave, but was bound to the land and
was not allowed to leave.
Manors: The Economic Side of Feudalism
o Manor was the lord’s estate. This system was based on a set of rights and obligations between a lord and his serfs.
o Lord provided the serfs with housing, land, and protection from bandits.
o Serfs tended the lord’s lands, cared for his animals, and performed other tasks to maintain the estate.
o All peasants, rather free or serf, owed the lord certain duties. These included at least a few days of labor each week and
a certain portion of their grain.
 A Self-Contained World
o Manor usually only covered a few square miles of land.
o Consisted of the lord’s manor house, a church, and workshops.
o Generally 15-30 families lived in the village on a manor.
o Largely self-sufficient. Could raise or make almost anything needed for the manor. Only outside purchases were salt
and iron.
 The Harshness of Manor Life
o Peasants paid a variety of taxes.
o Small, crowded living conditions. One or two rooms. Often had dirt floors. Slept on insect infested piles of hay. Often
brought animals in the house at night to provide body heat.
o Many children did not survive into adulthood. Illness and malnutrition were constant dangers. Avg life expectancy for
peasants was about 35 years old.

37b - describe the political impact of Christianity to include Pope Gregory VII and King Henry IV (Holy Roman
Emperor)


Church Leaders and political leaders compete for power and authority. The Emperor Clashes with the Pope.
Emperor Henry IV and Pope Gregory VII
o Pope Gregory VII bans lay investiture—kings appointing Church officials.
o Henry IV orders pope to resign; Gregory VIII excommunicates Henry.
o Henry IV’s subjects side with the Pope. Henry IV must apologize to the Pope.

Showdown at Canossa
o Henry goes to Canossa, Italy, to beg Gregory for forgiveness.
o Gregory forgives Henry, but lay investiture problem is not solved.

Concordat of Worms
o Concordat of Worms is 1122 compromise in Worms, Germany.
o Compromise: pope appoints bishops, emperor can veto appointment.

37c - explain the role of the church in medieval society


The Middle Ages is often referred to as the “Age of Faith.”
Structure of Church
o Clergy—church official.
o Power was based on status. Pope was at the top. All other clergy (bishops, priests, etc.) fell under his
authority.
The people of the medieval period were expected to live according to Christian doctrines. Believed you had to
receive the sacraments (important religious ceremonies) to achieve salvation.
Often times, the church was more powerful than kings or nobles, and could make or break a kings’ rule.
Church had its own laws (canon law) and courts (Inquisition).
Catholic Church had tremendous amount of power. Pope could excommunicate (kick people out of the
church which meant they were going to hell) or issue an interdict (excommunicate an entire country).
The church was also a place of higher learning. Clergy members were often the only people in society who
could read and write—had to be able to read the Bible. Kings and nobles used these educated peoples to
administer their affairs.





37d - describe how increasing trade led to the growth of towns and cities


Crusades led to an increase in trade. Increased trade leads to larger cities.
Warmer climate and new farming methods.
o Switch to Horsepower
o The Three-Field System
o Leads to more food, which leads to larger population. Larger population leads to increased trade.
The Guilds
o As people moved back into towns, people learned trades and joined guilds. A guild is an organization of individuals in
the same business or occupation working to improve the economic and social conditions of its members. Earliest guilds
were merchant guilds. Banded together to control supply and demand.
o Craft guilds—set standards for quality of work, wages, and working conditions. Guilds became powerful forces in
medieval economy. Began to exert their influence over the government and economy.
o Apprentice, Journeyman, and Master
Commercial Revolution
o Expansion of trade and business. Increased availability of trade goods and new ways of doing business.
o Fairs and Trade

Peasants from nearby manors hauled items to town on fair days to trade. Great fairs were held several times a
year.

Cloth was most common trade item. Also bacon, salt, honey, cheese, wine, leather, dyes, knives, and ropes.
No longer was everything produced on a self-sufficient manor.

More goods from foreign lands became available (Crusades). Trading with Constantinople, and North Africa.
Society Changes
o More workers move to town. Self-sufficient manors become a thing of the past.
o More money available for building businesses.
o More tax money increases the king’s power and wealth.
o As trade grew, more people moved to town.
o Drawbacks—Narrow streets filled with animals and their waste. People dumped household and human waste into the
street. Most people never bathed. Houses were fire hazards.
o Merchant class town dwellers became known as the burghers.




37e - describe the impact of the Crusades on both the Islamic World and Europe


1093—Pope urged leaders of Western Europe to begin a holy war to win the Holy Land back from the Muslim Turks.
Goals of Crusades
o Pope—Regain control of the Holy Land. Prove to everyone how powerful he was. Reunite Byzantine and Roman
Catholic Christians. Also wanted the knights, who were always fighting each other in Europe, to put their violence to
good use.
o Knights/Nobles—Were guaranteed heaven after death. Wanted to get rich and famous.
o
o







Kings—With the Nobles/Knights off fighting, Kings could seize control of their lands and increase their power.
Merchants—Wanted to make money by charging interest on loans, leasing ships, and gaining control of key trade
routes.
First Crusade
o Christians from all over Western Europe head towards Jerusalem. Only ¼ actually made it all the way to the Holy Land.
o Christians won a narrow strip of land which was divided up into 4 feudal states. The Crusaders eventually loss the city
of Edessa back to the Muslims.
Second Crusade
o Unsuccessful attempt to recapture Edessa.
Third Crusade
o Also known as the King’s Crusade because it was led by 3 European Kings. In the end, Richard the Lion-Hearted of
England took command.
o His Muslim counterpart was Saladin. They had a very deep respect for one another. This Crusade ended in a truce.
Muslims kept control of the Holy Land but unarmed Christians could come and go as they pleased.
Later Crusades
o Many often didn’t even make it to the Holy Land. Crusaders attacked another Christian city—Constantinople. Other
Crusades ended up in Egypt. Crusades became less about recapturing the Holy Land and more about gaining wealth.
Children’s Crusades
o Children attempted to travel to the Holy Land to fight the Muslims. Most were never heard from again. Enslaved,
kidnapped, etc.
Spanish Crusade
o Reconquista—Long effort to drive the Muslims out of Spain.
o Inquisition—Church court used by Ferdinand and Isabella to suppress heresy (beliefs that went against Catholic
teachings)
Effects of Crusades
o Increased world trade and the growth of cities.
o Failures of the Crusades made the Popes look bad and weakened their power.
o Kings—became more powerful because they took land away from the knights/nobles who were off fighting.
o Nobles/Knights—became less powerful. Lost power while they were off fighting.
o Crusades left a legacy of bitterness between Muslims and Christians.
AKS 38/42a Summary

38a - explain the social, economic and political changes that contributed to the rise of Florence and the ideas of
Machiavelli
o
o
o
o
o
Renaissance began in the city-states of north Italy particularly in Florence.

Northern Italy was a urban region. (Genoa, Venice, and Florence).

Region of wealthy merchants. Had their own armies and collected their own taxes. These merchants
considered finding and sponsoring a young painter just as important as making a large amount of money.

Roman and Greek cultures located nearby.
Differences that set the Renaissance apart from the Middle Ages were many.

First is that the people of the Middle Ages worked only for the glory of God and not themselves. At the start of
the 1300’s though writers and other artists in north Italy were ready to be remembered as individuals. Two new
forms of art show this: the self portrait and autobiography. People thought their lives were important and
interesting so they wanted to share this with the world.

Second is that most if not all Renaissance scholars hated the art and literature of the Middle Ages. Petrarch
gave it the name the Dark Ages. These Renaissance scholars loved the work of the Greeks and Romans. The
scholars who studied these classics were called humanists.

Third was the enjoyment of worldly goods. In the Middle Ages people showed their love for God by not having
much. Renaissance humanists said that people could enjoy life without offending God.
Golden age of Florence was based on the golden florin, which was the city’s coin. Florentines made their wealth chiefly
through textiles and banking. As a result Florentines were very well off. Due to the riches of the cloth industry, the
bank business began to boom. By the mid 1300’s Florence was the financial capital of Europe.
Florence fell under the power of a single family, the Medici (MEHD-uh-chee). The Medici had made their money in the
banking and trade industry. Cosimo de Medici was the richest man of his time. For close to 30 years he was virtually a
dictator of Florence.
Niccolo Machiavelli—wrote a book giving advice to rulers called The Prince. Born in Florence and had closely
observed many different rulers. He wrote that most people are selfish, fickle and corrupt and that to succeed a prince
or king must be strong and shrewd. He said that a ruler might have to trick his enemies and even his own people to be
successful. He wrote about faking your death to find out who your friends and enemies were. He wrote that is was
better to be feared than loved. Overall, the book was not about ruling in a morally right fashion. He wrote about what
was politically effective.

38b - identify artistic and scientific achievements of the "Renaissance Man", Leonardo da Vinci, and Michelangelo
Leonardo da Vinci
 The Renaissance Man
 Painter, sculptor, inventor, and scientist.
 Experimented with bicycles, hydraulics, and masonry.
 Studied how a muscle moves and how veins are arranged in a leaf.
 Had notebooks full of his ideas. Bat-like flying machine and a parachute.
 Famous Paintings
o The Last Supper—Painted on the wall of a monastery in Milan. Shows Jesus breaking bread with his 12 apostles the
night before his betrayal. Shows the personalities of Jesus’ disciples through facial expressions.
o The Mona Lisa—Woman seems so real that many writers have tried to explain the thoughts behind her smile.
Michelangelo
 Born in 1475. Apprenticed to be a painter at 13.
 Became a famous painter and sculptor.
 Famous Works of Art
o Pieta—Marble sculpture of a clothed Virgin Mary with the dead Christ in her arms. Art critics immediately hailed the
work as a masterpiece.
o David—White marble statue of the Biblical warrior David, moments before battle. Stands 18 feet tall. Muscles ripple
with power. His face radiates strength and determination.
o Sistine Chapel

1508—Pope Julius II asked Michelangelo to paint the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel. Site where cardinals met to
choose the next Pope.

Ceiling was 130 ft by 44 ft. About 58,000 square feet.

Worked on scaffolding 65 feet above the floor everyday for 3 years.

Painted more than 300 massive human figures. Very messy and tiring work.

Ceiling contains nine paintings illustrating the Creation, the story of Adam, and the story of Noah.

38c - explain the main characteristics of humanism to include the ideas of Petrarch, Dante and Erasmus
Humanism
 A Renaissance intellectual movement in which thinkers studied classical texts and focused on human potential and
achievements.
 Humanists studied Classical texts to understand ancient Greek values.
 Humanists influenced artists and architects to carry on classical traditions.
 Humanists popularized the study of subjects that the Greeks and the Romans would have studied. History, literature, and
philosophy, which are known as the humanities.
 When Italian humanist ideas reached the north, people used them to examine the traditional teachings of the Church. Became
known as Christian Humanism.
Christian Humanism
 Focus was the reform of society.
 Particularly interested on education.
 Promoted the education of women and founded schools attended by both boys and girls.
 Believed that knowledge requires a balance between faith and reason.
Francesco Petrarch--Humanist
 One of the earliest and most influential humanists.
 Called the father of Renaissance humanism. Called the medieval period “Dark Ages.”
 Great poet and writer who wrote in Italian and Latin.
 In his writing, Petrarch strove for the classical virtues of simplicity and purity.
Dante—Humanist
 Dante Alighieri—born in Florence in 1265
 Most famous work—The Divine Comedy
o Part I—Dante imagines that the ancient Roman poet Virgil is guiding him on a tour of “the inferno” (hell).
o Part II—Dante and Virgil visit a zone called purgatory, which is a zone in between heaven and hell.
o Part III—Dante is guided through paradise by the famous medieval monk, St. Bernard.
 Dante’s masterpiece showed both the religious ideas of the Middle Ages and the worldly concerns of the Renaissance.
 Dante wrote in the vernacular, or the everyday language of his homeland. People other than scholars could also read it.
Erasmus—Christian Humanist
 From Holland




Wrote In Praise of Folly
Book poked fun at greedy merchants, heartsick lovers, quarrelsome scholars, and pompous priest.
Believed in a Christianity of the heart, not one of ceremonies or rules.
Thought that in order to improve society, all people should study the Bible.

38d - analyze the impact of the Protestant Reformation to include the ideas of Martin Luther and John Calvin
Causes of the Reformation

Social Causes
o The Renaissance values of humanism and secularism led people to question the Church.
o The printing press helped to spread ideas critical of the Church.
 Political Causes
o Powerful monarchs challenged the Church as the supreme power in Europe.
o Many leaders viewed the pope as a foreign ruler and challenged his authority.
 Economic Causes
o European princes and kings were jealous of the Church’s wealth.
o Merchants and others resented having to pay taxes to the Church.
 Religious Causes
o Some Church leaders had become worldly and corrupt.
o Many people found Church practices such as the sale of indulgences unacceptable.
Luther Challenges the Church
 Martin Luther was a monk and teacher at the University of Wittenberg in the German state of Saxony.
 The 95 Theses
o
Martin Luther protests Friar Johann Tetzel’s selling of indulgences.
o
o
o
o
o
Indulgence—a pardon releasing a person from penalty for a sin.
In 1517 Luther posts his 95 Theses attacking “pardon-merchants.”
Luther’s theses circulate throughout Germany.
Luther launches the Reformation—a movement for religious reform.
Reformation rejects pope’s authority.
 Luther’s Teachings
o People can win salvation only by faith in God’s gift of forgiveness.
o Christian teachings must be based on the Bible, not the pope.
o All people with faith are equal, can interpret Bible without priests.
The Response to Luther
 The Pope’s Threat
o Pope Leo X issues decree threatening to excommunicate Luther (1520).
o Luther’s rights of Church membership are taken away.
o Luther refuses to take back his statements and is excommunicated.
 The Emperor’s Opposition
o Charles V is Holy Roman Emperor.
o He issues Edict of Worms (1521), declaring Luther a heretic.
o Luther and followers begin a separate religious group—Lutherans.
Calvin Continues the Reformation
 Calvin Formalizes Protestant Ideas
o John Calvin only 8 when Luther posted his 95 Theses.
o 1536—wrote a book called Institutes of the Christian Religion. Summary of Protestant theology.
o Wrote that men and women are naturally sinful. Believed humans cannot earn salvation.
o Believed God chooses a very few to save. They are called the elect. Believed God has known since the beginning of time
who will be saved. Known as predestination.
o Started a branch of Protestantism known as Calvinism.
 Calvin Leads the Reformation in Switzerland
o Believed ideal gov’t was a theocracy—gov’t controlled by religious leaders.
o Was invited to Geneva to lead their city in 1541.
o Ran the city according to strict rules. Mandatory religion class. No bright clothes. No card games.
o Would imprison, excommunicate or banish anyone who did not follow the rules.
o Anyone who preached different ideas may have been burned at the stake.
 Calvinism Spreads
o One admiring visitor was from Scotland named John Knox.
o Went back to Scotland and took Calvinism with him.
o Each community church in Scotland was ruled by a group of church elders called presbyters. Followers of Knox became
known as Presbyterians.
o
o
o
o
1560—Knox and other Scottish nobles make Calvinism (Presbyterianism) Scotland’s official religion. Got rid of their
Catholic Queen Mary Stuart for her son, James.
Scottish Calvinists--Presbyterians
French Calvinists—Huguenots
English Calvinists--Puritans

38e - describe the Counter Reformation at the Council of Trent and the role of the Jesuits

Catholic/Counter Reformation—a 16 century movement in which the Roman Catholic Church sought to make changes in
response to the Protestant Reformation. Basically, they asked themselves why are the Protestants breaking away? Are we doing
something wrong? Do we have any beliefs which need to change? What can we do to stop the Protestant movement from
spreading?
Ignatius--in the Spanish army and was fighting the French when a cannonball shattered his right leg. He had a recovery time of a
few months and during this time he was able to think about all his past sins and the life of Jesus. He felt as though his soul was
cleansed each day he had a devotion and in 1522 he began writing a book called Spiritual Exercises in which he laid out a day by
day plan for meditation, prayer and study. Gathered a large group of followers called the Jesuits. Jesuits were willing to do
anything for the Pope. Had 3 main activities:

1) Schools. They worked hard to found schools and then make them the best.

2) Convert all non-Christians to Catholicism.

3) Stop the spread of Protestantism.





th
Popes Paul III and Paul IV took the lead in reforming the Catholic Church in the 1500’s. They had two main goals. One was to
purify the Catholic Church and second was to stop Protestantism.
Paul III did three important things to reform the church.

1) He ordered an investigation on all church abuses including simony (selling church positions), indulgence
selling and others.

2) Officially approved of the Jesuits.

3) He held a meeting of the highest church leaders called the Council of Trent to make an official church
response to Martin Luther’s three main teachings.

1) Pope’s interpretation of the bible is final and anyone who uses their own interpretation was a
heretic.

2) Christians were not saved by faith alone but instead by faith and good works.

3) The Bible and Church tradition shared equal authority for guiding a Christians life.

4) Selling indulgences was acceptable, but the false selling of indulgences was banned.
Pope Paul IV created a list of books that he considered dangerous to the Catholic Church and ordered them all burnt. His list
was called the Index of Forbidden Books.
38f - describe the English Reformation and the role of Henry VIII and Elizabeth I
England Becomes Protestant
 Henry VIII Wants a Son
o Henry VIII becomes king in 1509—devout Catholic. Called “Defender of the Faith” by the Pope.
o Henry has only daughter and needs male heir to rule England.
o Henry wants a divorce; Pope refuses to annul—set aside—his first marriage to Catherine of Aragon.
 The Reformation Parliament
o Parliament passes laws ending pope’s power in England.
o Becomes official head of England’s Church. Called the Act of Supremacy.
o Secretly marries Anne Boleyn.
o Parliament legalized Henry’s divorce from Catherine.
o Thomas More refuses to go against Catholic Church and is beheaded.
 Consequences of Henry’s Changes
o Henry has six wives and three children.

Catherine of Aragon—Mary

Anne Boleyn—Elizabeth

Jane Seymour—Edward
o Religious turmoil follows Henry’s death.
o Protestantism under King Edward, then Catholicism under Queen Mary (Bloody Mary).
 Elizabeth Restores Protestantism
o Henry’s second daughter, Queen Elizabeth I, forms Anglican Church (Church of England).
o Anglican Church is acceptable to moderate Catholics and Protestants. It was a mixture of Protestantism and
Catholicism.

38g - explain the importance of Gutenberg and the invention of the printing press


1440—Johann Gutenberg—Craftsman from Mainz, Germany develops a printing press that uses movable type.
o 1445—Printed the Gutenberg Bible—first full size book printed with movable type.
o Enabled a printer to produce hundreds of copies of a single work.
For the first time in history, books were cheap enough so many people could buy them.
o Printing changed society by making more information available and inexpensive enough for society at large.
o Greater availability of books prompted an increased desire for learning and a rise of literacy.

42a - explain the scientific contributions of Copernicus, Galileo, Kepler and Newton and how these ideas changed the
European world view

Scientific Revolution--A new way of thinking about the natural world that was based upon careful observation and a willingness
to question accepted beliefs.
Nicolaus Copernicus—Polish astronomer who argued that the stars, the earth, and the other planets revolved around the sun.
o Known as the heliocentric theory.
o Did not publish his findings until the last year of his life because he knew it would be controversial. Catholic Church
believed in the geocentric theory.
o His book was titled On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Bodies.


Johannes Kepler—Brilliant mathematician who concluded that certain mathematical laws govern planetary motion.
o Planets revolve around the sun in elliptical, not circular, orbits.
o The closer to the sun the planets get, the faster they move.
o Planets further away from the sun have longer years.

Galileo Galilei—Italian scientist who built a much improved telescope.
o 1610—Published a book called Starry Messenger which described many of the things he observed using his telescope.
o Observations clearly supported the heliocentric theory of Copernicus.
o Was put on house arrest by the Catholic Church.

Isaac Newton—English scientist who believed that all physical objects were affected equally by the same forces.
o Same force ruled motion of the planets and all matter on earth and in space.
o Called this force gravity.
o Published his findings in The Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy.
o Described the universe like a giant clock, with all of its parts working together perfectly.
o Believed that God was the creator of such a perfectly working universe.

Changing European World View
o Europeans began to question many accepted beliefs.
o Many began to question the Church and its teachings.
AKS 36 Summary

36a - explain the rise and fall of the Olmec, Mayan, Aztec and Inca empires




RISE AND FALL OF THE OLMEC
Strength Leading to Power

Used abundant natural
resources to build thriving
communities

Prosperous people who
directed a large trading
network
Traits of Civilization
Mesoamerica’s first known
civilization. “Mother
Culture.”
Prayed to a variety of nature
gods.
Worshipped the jaguar spirit
Mound builders
Weakness Leading to Decline

Outside invasions.

Olmec may have destroyed
their own monuments upon the
death of their rulers

Don’t know—no written
records.
RISE AND FALL OF THE MAYA
Traits of Civilization

Religious beliefs and
theocracy

Independent city-states

Intensive agriculture
Strength Leading to Power
United culture
Loyalty to the king
Wealthy and prosperous
culture

Production of more food feeds
a larger population






Weakness Leading to Decline
Many physical and human resources
funneled into religious activities
Frequent warfare occurs between
kingdoms
Population growth creates need for
more land
Traits of Civilization

Religious beliefs and
theocracy

Powerful army

Empire of tribute states




Traits of Civilization
Religious beliefs and theocracy
Major road systems
Type of welfare state with
huge bureaucracy
RISE AND FALL OF THE AZTECS
Strength Leading to Power
Weakness Leading to Decline

United culture

Many physical and human resources
funneled into religious activities.

Loyalty to the emperor

Need for prisoners changes warfare style

Adds land, power, and
to less deadly and less aggressive
prisoners for religious sacrifice

Tribute states are rebellious and need to

Provides wealth and power and
be controlled
prisoners for religious sacrifice
RISE AND FALL OF THE INCA
Strength Leading to Power

United culture

Loyalty to the Emperor

Connected entire empire and
aided control

Care for entire population
during good and bad times
Weakness Leading to Decline

Many physical and human
resources funneled into
religious activities

Enemy could also use roads to
move troops

People struggle to care for
themselves with the
elimination of the welfare state
36b - compare the culture of the Americas including government, economy, religion, social structure, technology and
the arts of the Mayans, Aztecs and Incas
Mayans
Aztecs
Incas
Government
Independent city-states ruled Military empire headed by
Empire governed by central
by god-kings.
god-king (emperor).
bureaucracy and god-king.
Economy
Agriculture-based economy;
Agriculture-based economy;
State controlled the
trade linked city-states.
extensive trade network;
production/distribution of
huge central market; tribute
goods; labor tribute called mita
from conquered peoples.
required of all citizens.
Religion
Worshipped many gods,
Worshipped many gods,
Worshipped many gods;
including Kukulcan; made
including Quetzalcoatl; made preserved mummies; sacrificed
human sacrifices.
human sacrafices. Believed
llamas.
human blood made the sun
rise.
Social Structure
Maya kings; nobility
Emperor; nobility (priests,
Inca (emperor): council of
(warriors and priests);
warriors, and government
state; priests; citizens.
merchants and artisans;
officials); commoners; slaves.
peasants.
Technology
Used two calendars; invented Used two calendars; built
Elaborate calendar system,
zero, used base 20 number
pyramids and temples,
massive water management
system; built pyramids;
aqueducts, dams, and
system; system of roads,
astronomy observations.
irrigation systems.
bridges, and tunnels.
AKS 39 Summary

39a - explain the roles of explorers and conquistadors, including Zheng He, Vasco DaGama, Christopher Columbus,
Ferdinand Magellan, James Cook, and Samuel de Champlain
Explorers


Zheng He
o Chinese Muslim Admiral who began exploring in 1405.
o Purpose—Impress the world with the power and splendor of Ming China. Also wanted to expand China’s
tribute system.
o Everything about the expeditions were large—distances traveled, fleet size, and ship measurements.
o Voyages ranged from SE Asia to Africa.
o 40-300 ships on each voyage.
o Like a huge floating city sailing from port to port along the Indian Ocean.
o Everywhere he went, he distributed gifts of gold and silver to show Chinese superiority.
o Voyages were discontinued because Chinese scholar officials complained that the voyages wasted valuable
resources that could be used to defend against barbarians’ attacks on the northern frontier.
Vasco Da Gama
o Portuguese explorer who rounded Africa and reached India in 1498.
o Filled their ships with spices and returned home.
o The cargo was worth 60 times the cost of the voyage.
o This 27,000 mile voyage gave Portugal a direct sea route to India.
 Christopher Columbus
o Sailed the ocean blue in 1492.
o Sailed west from Spain looking for a shorter trade route to Asia and its riches.
o Was the first European to reach the Americas.
 Ferdinand Magellan
o Led a Spanish expedition in 1519.
o Magellan’s crew became the first Europeans to sail around the world.
 James Cook
o British sea captain who sailed to Australia.
o Claimed New Zealand in 1769 and part of Australia in 1770.
o Claimed both for Great Britain.
 Samuel de Champlain
o French explorer who was searching for the Northwest Passage in North America.
o 1608—sailed up the St. Lawrence with about 32 colonists.
o Founded Quebec—became the base of France’s colonial empire in North America.
o Known as New France
th
Conquistadors—the Spanish soldiers, explorers, and fortune hunters who took part in the conquest of the Americas in the 16 century.


Hernando Cortes
o Conquered the Aztecs led by Montezuma in present day Mexico.
o European diseases did most of the damage—Measles, mumps, smallpox, and typhus.
o Also had the help of some Aztec-hating native Americans.
Francisco Pizarro
o Conquered the Inca led by Atahualpa in present day Peru.

39b - define the Columbian Exchange and its global economic and cultural impact
o The global transfer of plants, animals, and diseases that occurred during the European colonization of the Americas.
o Old World stuff (plants, animals, diseases) to the New World and New World stuff to the Old World.

39c - explain the role of the improved technology in European exploration including the astrolabe
o Age of Exploration led to European colonization and mercantilism (exploiting colonies to make your country
wealthier).
o The Ability to Use New Technology

1400’s—Shipbuilders designed a new vessel—the caravel. Triangular sails (idea borrowed from Arab
Muslims) for tacking into the wind. Square sails for running with the wind.

Astrolabe (also borrowed from Muslims)—a brass circle with carefully adjusted concentric rings used to
measure the height of the sun or a star above the horizon. With that information they could determine both
the time of day and their latitude.

Compass—an instrument used to indicate direction. Chinese invention.