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The Human Body: An Orientation THE HUMAN BODY—AN ORIENTATION Anatomy Study of the structure and shape of the body and its parts Physiology Study of how the body and its parts work or function ANATOMY—LEVELS OF STUDY Gross anatomy Large structures Easily observable Mouth (oral cavity) Tongue Stomach Pancreas (Spleen) Liver Gallbladder Anus Salivary glands Pharynx Esophagus Small intestine Parotid gland Sublingual gland Submandibular gland Duodenum Jejunum lleum Transverse colon Descending colon Ascending colon Cecum Sigmoid colon Rectum Appendix Anal canal Large intestine Figure 14.1 ANATOMY—LEVELS OF STUDY Microscopic anatomy Structures cannot be seen with the naked eye Structures can only be viewed with a microscope Gastric pits Gastric pit Mucous neck cells Gastric gland Pyloric sphincter Surface epithelium Parietal cells Gastric glands Chief cells (c) Figure 14.4c Pepsinogen HCl Pepsin Parietal cells Chief cells Enteroendocrine cell (d) Figure 14.4d Molecules Smooth muscle cell 2 Cellular level Cells are made up of molecules. Atoms 1 Chemical level Atoms combine to form molecules. 3 Tissue level Tissues consist of similar types of cells. Smooth muscle tissue Blood vessels Heart Epithelial tissue Smooth muscle Blood tissue vessel (organ) Connective tissue 4 Organ level Organs are made up of different types of tissues. Cardio– vascular system 5 Organ system level Organ systems consist of different organs that work together closely. 6 Organismal level Human organisms are made up of many organ systems. Figure 1.1 Figure 1.1, step 1 Figure 1.1, step 2 Figure 1.1, step 3 Figure 1.1, step 4 Figure 1.1, step 5 Figure 1.1, step 6 ORGAN SYSTEM OVERVIEW Integumentary Forms the external body covering Protects deeper tissue from injury Helps regulate body temperature Location of cutaneous nerve receptors Skin (a) Integumentary System Forms the external body covering; protects deeper tissue from injury; synthesizes vitamin D; location of cutaneous (pain, pressure, etc.) receptors and sweat and oil glands. Figure 1.2a ORGAN SYSTEM OVERVIEW Skeletal Protects and supports body organs Provides muscle attachment for movement Site of blood cell formation Stores minerals Cartilages Joint Bones (b) Skeletal System Protects and supports body organs; provides a framework the muscles use to cause movement; blood cells are formed within bones; stores minerals. Figure 1.2b ORGAN SYSTEM OVERVIEW Muscular Produces movement Maintains posture Produces heat Skeletal muscles (c) Muscular System Allows manipulation of the environment, locomotion, and facial expression; maintains posture; produces heat. Figure 1.2c ORGAN SYSTEM OVERVIEW Nervous Fast-acting control system Responds to internal and external change Activates muscles and glands Brain Sensory receptor Spinal cord Nerves (d) Nervous System Fast-acting control system of the body; responds to internal and external changes by activating appropriate muscles and glands. Figure 1.2d ORGAN SYSTEM OVERVIEW Endocrine Secretes regulatory hormones Growth Reproduction Metabolism Pineal gland Pituitary gland Thyroid gland (parathyroid glands on posterior aspect) Thymus gland Adrenal glands Pancreas Testis (male) Ovary (female) (e) Endocrine System Glands secrete hormones that regulate processes such as growth, reproduction, and nutrient use by body cells. Figure 1.2e ORGAN SYSTEM OVERVIEW Cardiovascular Transports materials in body via blood pumped by heart Oxygen Carbon dioxide Nutrients Wastes Heart Blood vessels (f) Cardiovascular System Blood vessels transport blood, which carries oxygen, carbon dioxide, nutrients, wastes, etc.; the heart pumps blood. Figure 1.2f ORGAN SYSTEM OVERVIEW Lymphatic Returns fluids to blood vessels Cleanses the blood Involved in immunity Thoracic duct Lymph nodes Lymphatic vessels (g) Lymphatic System Picks up fluid leaked from blood vessels and returns it to blood; disposes of debris in the lymphatic stream; houses white blood cells involved in immunity. Figure 1.2g ORGAN SYSTEM OVERVIEW Respiratory Keeps blood supplied with oxygen Removes carbon dioxide Nasal cavity Pharynx Larynx Trachea Bronchus Left lung (h) Respiratory System Keeps blood constantly supplied with oxygen and removes carbon dioxide; the gaseous exchanges occur through the walls of the air sacs of the lungs. Figure 1.2h ORGAN SYSTEM OVERVIEW Digestive Breaks down food Allows for nutrient absorption into blood Eliminates indigestible material as feces Oral cavity Esophagus Stomach Small intestine Large intestine Rectum Anus (i) Digestive System Breaks food down into absorbable units that enter the blood for distribution to body cells; indigestible foodstuffs are eliminated as feces. Figure 1.2i ORGAN SYSTEM OVERVIEW Urinary Eliminates nitrogenous wastes Maintains acid-base balance Regulates water and electrolytes Kidney Ureter Urinary bladder Urethra (j) Urinary System Eliminates nitrogen-containing wastes from the body; regulates water, electrolyte, and acid-base balance of the blood. Figure 1.2j ORGAN SYSTEM OVERVIEW Reproductive Produces offspring Testes produce sperm and male hormone Ovaries produce eggs and female hormones Seminal vesicles Prostate gland Mammary glands (in breasts) Uterine tube Ovary Uterus Penis Vas deferens Testis Scrotum (k) Male Reproductive System Vagina (l) Female Reproductive System Overall function of the reproductive system is production of offspring. Testes produce sperm and male sex hormone; ducts and glands aid in delivery of viable sperm to the female reproductive tract. Ovaries produce eggs and female sex hormones; remaining structures serve as sites for fertilization and development of the fetus. Mammary glands of female breast produce milk to nourish the newborn. Figure 1.2k–l NECESSARY LIFE FUNCTIONS Maintain boundaries Movement Locomotion Movement of substances Responsiveness Ability to sense changes and react Digestion Breakdown and absorption of nutrients NECESSARY LIFE FUNCTIONS Metabolism—chemical reactions within the body Break down complex molecules into smaller ones Build larger molecules from smaller ones Produces energy Regulated by hormones Excretion Eliminates waste from metabolic reactions Wastes may be removed in urine or feces NECESSARY LIFE FUNCTIONS Reproduction Occurs on cellular level or organismal level Produces future generation Growth Increases cell size and number of cells SURVIVAL NEEDS Nutrients Chemicals for energy and cell building Includes carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, vitamins, and minerals Oxygen Required for chemical reactions SURVIVAL NEEDS Water 60 to 80 percent of body weight Most abundant chemical substance in the human body Is needed for metabolic reaction Stable body temperature 37°C (98°F) Atmospheric pressure Must be appropriate for gas exchange Digestive system Takes in nutrients, breaks them down, and eliminates unabsorbed matter (feces) Food Respiratory system Takes in oxygen and eliminates carbon dioxide O2 CO2 Cardiovascular system Via the blood, distributes oxygen and nutrients to all body cells and delivers wastes and carbon dioxide to disposal organs Blood Heart Nutrients CO2 O2 Urinary system Eliminates nitrogencontaining wastes and excess ions Interstitial fluid Nutrients and wastes pass between blood and cells via the interstitial fluid Feces Integumentary system Protects the body as a whole from the external environment Urine Figure 1.3 HOMEOSTASIS Homeostasis—maintenance of a stable internal environment A dynamic state of equilibrium Necessary for normal body functioning and to sustain life Homeostatic imbalance A disturbance in homeostasis resulting in disease 3 Input: Information sent along afferent pathway to control center. 2 Receptor Receptor Control Center Efferent Afferent pathway pathway sent along efferent pathway to effector. Effector Response of effector feeds back to reduce the effect of stimulus and returns variable to homeostatic level. 5 detects change. 1 Stimulus produces change in variable. 4 Output: Information VARIABLE (in homeostasis) Figure 1.4 1 Stimulus produces change in variable. VARIABLE (in homeostasis) Figure 1.4, step 1 2 Receptor Receptor detects change. 1 Stimulus produces change in variable. VARIABLE (in homeostasis) Figure 1.4, step 2 3 Input: Information sent along afferent pathway to control center. 2 Receptor Receptor Control Center Afferent pathway detects change. 1 Stimulus produces change in variable. VARIABLE (in homeostasis) Figure 1.4, step 3 3 Input: Information sent along afferent pathway to control center. 2 Receptor Receptor Control Center Efferent Afferent pathway pathway 4 Output: Information sent along efferent pathway to effector. Effector detects change. 1 Stimulus produces change in variable. VARIABLE (in homeostasis) Figure 1.4, step 4 3 Input: Information sent along afferent pathway to control center. 2 Receptor Receptor Control Center Efferent Afferent pathway pathway sent along efferent pathway to effector. Effector Response of effector feeds back to reduce the effect of stimulus and returns variable to homeostatic level. 5 detects change. 1 Stimulus produces change in variable. 4 Output: Information VARIABLE (in homeostasis) Figure 1.4, step 5 MAINTAINING HOMEOSTASIS The body communicates through neural and hormonal control systems Receptor Responds to changes in the environment (stimuli) Sends information to control center MAINTAINING HOMEOSTASIS Control center Determines set point Analyzes information Determines appropriate response Effector Provides a means for response to the stimulus FEEDBACK MECHANISMS Negative feedback Includes most homeostatic control mechanisms Shuts off the original stimulus, or reduces its intensity Works like a household thermostat FEEDBACK MECHANISMS Positive feedback Increases the original stimulus to push the variable farther In the body this only occurs in blood clotting and during the birth of a baby THE LANGUAGE OF ANATOMY Special terminology is used to prevent misunderstanding Exact terms are used for Position Direction Regions Structures REGIONAL TERMS Anterior body landmarks Cephalic Frontal Orbital Nasal Buccal Oral Mental Cervical Thoracic Sternal Axillary Abdominal Umbilical Pelvic Inguinal (groin) Upper limb Acromial Deltoid Brachial (arm) Antecubital Antebrachial (forearm) Carpal (wrist) Manus (hand) Digital Lower limb Coxal (hip) Femoral (thigh) Patellar Pubic (genital) Crural (leg) KEY: Fibular Pedal (foot) Tarsal (ankle) Thorax Abdomen Back (Dorsum) Digital (a) Anterior/Ventral Figure 1.5a REGIONAL TERMS Posterior body landmarks Cephalic Occipital (back of head) Cervical Upper limb Acromial Brachial (arm) Olecranal Antebrachial (forearm) Back (dorsal) Scapular Vertebral Lumbar Sacral Manus (hand) Digital Gluteal Femoral (thigh) Popliteal Sural (calf) Fibular KEY: Thorax Abdomen Back (Dorsum) Pedal (foot) Calcaneal Plantar (b) Posterior/Dorsal Figure 1.5b DIRECTIONAL TERMS Superior (cranial or cephalad): toward the head end or upper part of a structure or the body; above Inferior (caudal): away from the head end or toward the lower part of a structure or the body; below Table 1.1 DIRECTIONAL TERMS Ventral (anterior): toward or at the front of the body; in front of Dorsal (posterior): toward or at the backside of the body; behind Table 1.1 DIRECTIONAL TERMS Medial: toward or at the midline of the body; on the inner side of Lateral: away from the midline of the body; on the outer side of Intermediate: between a more medial and a more lateral structure Table 1.1 DIRECTIONAL TERMS Proximal: close to the origin of the body part or point of attachment to a limb to the body trunk Distal: farther from the origin of a body part or the point of attachment of a limb to the body trunk Table 1.1 DIRECTIONAL TERMS Superficial: toward or at the body surface Deep: away from the body surface; more internal Table 1.1 BODY PLANES AND SECTIONS A sagittal section divides the body (or organ) into left and right parts. A median, or midsagittal, section divides the body (or organ) into equal left and right parts. A frontal, or coronal, section divides the body (or organ) into anterior and posterior parts. A transverse, or cross, section divides the body (or organ) into superior and inferior parts. (a) Median (midsagittal) Vertebral column Rectum Intestines (b) Frontal (coronal) plane Right lung Heart Liver Left lung Stomach Spleen (c) Transverse plane Liver Aorta Spinal Spleen cord Subcutaneous Stomach fat layer Figure 1.6 BODY CAVITIES Dorsal body cavity Cranial cavity houses the brain Spinal cavity houses the spinal cord Ventral body cavity Thoracic cavity houses heart, lungs, and others Abdominopelvic cavity houses digestive system and most urinary system organs Cranial cavity Thoracic cavity Spinal cavity Abdominal cavity Pelvic cavity KEY: Dorsal body cavity Abdominopelvic cavity Diaphragm Ventral body cavity Figure 1.7 Right upper quadrant (RUQ) Left upper quadrant (LUQ) Right lower quadrant (RLQ) Left lower quadrant (LLQ) Figure 1.8 Diaphragm Liver Stomach Right Left Transverse Gallbladder hypohypoEpigastric colon of large chondriac chondriac region intestine Ascending region region Descending colon of large Left Right colon of large intestine Umbilical lumbar lumbar intestine Small intestine region region region Initial part of Cecum Right iliac Hypogastric Left iliac sigmoid colon Appendix (inguinal) (pubic) (inguinal) Urinary region region region bladder (b) Anterior view of the nine regions (a) Nine regions delineated by four planes showing the superficial organs Figure 1.9a-b CLASS RESPONSE QUESTIONS The Human Body: An Orientation ALL CHEMICAL REACTIONS THAT OCCUR IN THE BODY ARE GROUPED UNDER histology. b) endocrinology. c) metabolism. d) cytology. a) ALL CHEMICAL REACTIONS THAT OCCUR IN THE BODY ARE GROUPED UNDER histology. b) endocrinology. c) metabolism. d) cytology. a) THE POPLITEAL SURFACE IS THE skull. b) back of the knee. c) front of the knee. d) back of the heel. a) THE POPLITEAL SURFACE IS THE skull. b) back of the knee. c) front of the knee. d) back of the heel. a) THE SAGITTAL PLANE CUTS ONE INTO anterior and posterior portions. b) right and left portions. c) equal right and left portions. d) superior and inferior portions. a) THE SAGITTAL PLANE CUTS ONE INTO anterior and posterior portions. b) right and left portions. c) equal right and left portions. d) superior and inferior portions. a) THE REGION THAT INCLUDES MOST OF THE RIBS IS THE epigastric region. b) hypochondriac region. c) lumbar region. d) iliac region. a) THE REGION THAT INCLUDES MOST OF THE RIBS IS THE epigastric region. b) hypochondriac region. c) lumbar region. d) iliac region. a) GROSS ANATOMY IS THE STUDY OF BODY STRUCTURES too small to be seen with the naked eye. b) that are large and easily observable. c) belonging to the intestinal tract. d) that are really disgusting. a) GROSS ANATOMY IS THE STUDY OF BODY STRUCTURES too small to be seen with the naked eye. b) that are large and easily observable. c) belonging to the intestinal tract. d) that are really disgusting. a) THE INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM IS the body’s fastest acting control center. b) responsible for producing hormones. c) responsible for returning fluid to the circulatory system. d) the external covering of the body. a) THE INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM IS the body’s fastest acting control center. b) responsible for producing hormones. c) responsible for returning fluid to the circulatory system. d) the external covering of the body. a) PRODUCING BLOOD CELLS (HEMATOPOIESIS) OCCURS IN THE ______ SYSTEM. endocrine b) integumentary c) skeletal d) cardiovascular a) PRODUCING BLOOD CELLS (HEMATOPOIESIS) OCCURS IN THE ______ SYSTEM. endocrine b) integumentary c) skeletal d) cardiovascular a) MOST OFTEN, HOMEOSTASIS IS MAINTAINED BY POSITIVE FEEDBACK. True False MOST OFTEN, HOMEOSTASIS IS MAINTAINED BY POSITIVE FEEDBACK. True False ONCE A STIMULUS IS RECEIVED BY A RECEPTOR, IT APPROACHES THE CONTROL CENTER BY A(AN) afferent pathway. b) efferent pathway. c) motor pathway. d) reflex pathway. a) ONCE A STIMULUS IS RECEIVED BY A RECEPTOR, IT APPROACHES THE CONTROL CENTER BY A(AN) afferent pathway. b) efferent pathway. c) motor pathway. d) reflex pathway. a) THE ANTEBRACHIAL REGION CAN BE FOUND ON THE skull. b) arm. c) leg. d) ankle. a) THE ANTEBRACHIAL REGION CAN BE FOUND ON THE skull. b) arm. c) leg. d) ankle. a) THE ELBOW IS ____ TO THE WRIST. inferior b) lateral c) proximal d) distal a) THE ELBOW IS ____ TO THE WRIST. inferior b) lateral c) proximal d) distal a) THIS SYSTEM PICKS UP FLUID LEAKED FROM BLOOD VESSELS AND RETURNS IT TO THE BLOOD. a) Integumentary b) Endocrine c) Cardiovascular d) Lymphatic THIS SYSTEM PICKS UP FLUID LEAKED FROM BLOOD VESSELS AND RETURNS IT TO THE BLOOD. a) Integumentary b) Endocrine c) Cardiovascular d) Lymphatic