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Anatomy and Physiology Anatomy the study of the structure (morphology) and shape of the body parts and their relationships to one another; in other words, what are things called? from the Greek word cut (tomy) apart (ana) Gross Anatomy Microscopic Anatomy – the study of large easily observable body structures – the study of microscopic structures of the body Physiology studies the functions of these parts or asks the question, how do they work? nature (physio) and study of (ology) Subdivisions of Physiology 1. Neurophysiology – explains the working of the nervous system 2. Cardiac Physiology – studies the function of the heart, which acts as a muscular pump to keep blood flowing throughout the body The two disciplines are closely interrelated because the functional role of a part depends on how it is constructed. Levels of Organization The human body is the sum of its parts and these parts can be studied at a variety of levels of organization. 1. Atoms are the simplest level. 2. Two or more atoms comprise a molecule 3. Macromolecules are large, biologically important molecules inside cells. 4. Organelles are aggregates of macromolecules used to carry out a specific function in the cell. 5. Cells are the basic living unit. 6. Tissues are groups of cells functioning together. 7. Groups of tissues form organs 8. Groups of organs function together as organ systems 9. Organ systems functioning together make up an organism. Anatomical Position In order to avoid confusion when describing the body, it is always described in the anatomical position. In the anatomical position, a person stands erect, legs together and arms by their sides, with their head, eyes, toes and palms of the hands facing forward. It is important to remember that the palms face forward as their relaxed position is generally facing inwards. The anatomical position allows us to describe the position of structures in relation to their surroundings, e.g. ‘the heart lies above the diaphragm’. The anatomical position avoids confusion as to whether the body is lying down or standing up. You should also bear in mind that when looking at a person in the anatomical position, their right side will be on your left. The structures will always be described as they are to the subject rather than as they appear to you. Anatomical planes and directions Planes When preparing to look at the structures of the body, medical students find if necessary to make a section or cut. When the section is made through the body wall or through an organ, it is made along an imaginary line called plane. A sagittal section is an imaginary plane that travels vertically from the top to the bottom of the body, dividing it into left and right portions. Language of Anatomy and Body Membranes Anatomy and Physiology There are three major anatomical planes; axial, coronal, and sagittal. Anatomical Position Axial (transverse plane) Coronal (frontal plane) Sagittal Description This plane cuts the body horizontally, into superior (upper) and inferior (lower) portions. This plane cuts the body vertically, into anterior (front) and posterior (back) portions. This plane cuts the body vertically, into left and right portions. If the body is cut in the sagittal plane, exactly along the middle of the body, it is known as the midsagittal, and when the half of the midsagittal is further cut we call it parasagittal. Direction Direction is used, when the body is in the anatomical position to explain the location of a structure relative to the structures surrounding it. Direction Description Towards the front of the body Anterior (or ventral) (in front of). Posterior (or dorsal) Towards the back of the body (behind). Superior (or cranial) Above (on top of). Inferior (or caudal) Below (underneath). Away from the mid line of the body Lateral (towards the sides). Towards the mid line of the body Medial (towards the middle). Away from the body surface (towards Deep the inner body). Towards the external surface of the Superficial body. Nearer to the trunk of the body. Proximal Furthest from the trunk of the body. Distal Regions The body is split up into two main areas, the axial and appendicular regions. The axial region refers to the head, vertebral column and trunk, and the appendicular region refers to the pelvic girdles and the upper and lower limbs. Each area is further divided into descriptive regions. Language of Anatomy and Body Membranes Example The breastbone area is anterior to the heart. The heart is posterior the breastbone area. The heart is superior to the diaphragm. The diaphragm is inferior to the heart. The arms are lateral to the chest. The heart is medial to the arm. The lungs are deep to the rib cage. The skin is superficial to the skeleton. The shoulder is proximal to the elbow. The elbow is distal to the shoulder. Anatomy and Physiology Cephalic Frontal Facial Occipital Orbital Buccal Thoracic Sternal Umbilical Inguinal Pubic Genital Perineal Dorsum Vertebral Cervical Description (pertaining to) Head Forehead Face Back of the head Eye cavity Cheek Chest Breastbone area Navel (belly button) Groin Mons pubis (pubic bone) Reproductive organs Perineum Back Spinal column Neck Lumbar Sacral Lower back Sacrum Axial regions Appendicular regions Upper limb Description (pertaining to) Clavicular Acromial Scapular Interscapular Axillary Brachial Antebrachial Cubital Carpal Digits Pollicis Palmar Lower Limb Gluteal Coxal Femoral Patellar Popliteal Crural Tarsal Calcaneal Pedal Plantar Clavicles Acromion of the shoulder Scapula Between the two scapulae Armpit Arm Forearm Elbow Wrist Fingers Thumb Palm of the hand Buttocks Hip Thigh Front of the knee Back of the knee Leg Ankle Heel Foot Sole of the foot Body cavities There are two main cavities within the body, the ventral and the dorsal cavities. The dorsal body cavity is at the back of the body and is the smaller of the two cavities. It can be further divided into the upper and lower portions, the cranial cavity and the vertebral canal respectively. The ventral body cavity is at the front of the body and is the larger of the two cavities. It can be further divided into three cavities, the thoracic cavity, abdominal cavity and pelvic cavity also called as the abdominopelvic cavity. The thoracic and abdominal cavities are divided by the diaphragm and the abdominal and pelvic cavities are continuous with each other. Name Description Boundaries Dorsal cavity (Small cavity at the back of the body.) Upper portion. Bounded by the skull. Cranial cavity Lower portion. Bounded by the vertebral column, Vertebral intervertebral discs and surrounding canal ligaments. Ventral cavity (Large cavity at the front of the body) Large cavity It is bound laterally by the ribs Thoracic above the (covered by costal pleura) and the cavity diaphragm. diaphragm inferiorly (covered by diaphragmatic pleura) Large cavity It is bound superiorly by the Abdominal Language of Anatomy and Body Membranes Contain Brain and meninges. Spinal cord, spinal nerve roots. Heart, lungs, trachea, oesophagus, large blood vessels and nerves. Gastrointestinal tract, spleen, Anatomy and Physiology cavity below the diaphragm. Pelvic cavity Small cavity below the brim of the pelvis. diaphragm, laterally by the body kidneys and adrenal glands. wall, and inferiorly by the pelvic cavity. It is bounded superiorly by the Urinary bladder, genitals, abdominal cavity, posteriorly by the sigmoid colon and rectum. sacrum, and laterally by the pelvis Quadrants and regions of the abdomen The abdomen can be divided by two lines into 4 quadrants or by 4 lines into 9 regions. The two lines that divide the abdomen into quadrants form a cross, the centre of which is positioned over the umbilicus (belly button). These quadrants are often used to indicate the location of pain. Quadrant Name Right upper quadrant Left upper quadrant Right lower quadrant Left lower quadrant Contains Liver, gallbladder, right kidney, duodenum, a portion of the ascending and transverse colons and the small intestine. Stomach, spleen, left kidney, pancreas, a portion of the descending and transverse colons and the small intestine. Appendix, caecum, a potion of the ascending colon and the small intestine. A portion of the descending and transverse colons and the small intestine. QUADRANTS OF THE ABDOMEN There are two vertical lines and two horizontal lines that divide the abdomen into a grid. The vertical lines also known as lateral lines are positioned using the middle of each clavicle as a reference. The upper horizontal line (also known as the transpyloric or subcostal line) is positioned at the level of the pylorus of the stomach close to the subcostal margin of the ribs. The lower horizontal line (also known as transtubercular line) is positioned at the level of the anterior superior iliac spines of the coxal (hip) bone. Language of Anatomy and Body Membranes Anatomy and Physiology REGIONS OF THE ABDOMEN Body Membrane A thin, flexible layer of tissue covering surfaces or separating or connecting regions, structures, or organs. Covers the body surface. Line the body cavities. Forms protective sheets around the organs. Types of Body Membrane Epithelial (covering & lining membranes) Cutaneous Membrane Mucous Membrane Serous Membrane Connective Tissue Membrane (line the fibrous capsules in the joints) Synovial Membrane Cutaneous Membrane Composed of keratinizing stratified squamous epithelium. Underlying dermis is dense (fibrous) connective tissue. Exposed to air and is dry. Mucous Membrane Composed of epithelium resting on a loose connective tissue membrane called a lamina propria. Lines all the cavities such as respiratory, digestive, urinary, and reproductive tracts. Always moist because they are continually bathed in secretions. Absorption and secretion. Most secretes mucus but not all times. Language of Anatomy and Body Membranes Anatomy and Physiology Serous Membrane Layer of simple squamous epithelium resting on a thin layer of areolar connective tissue. Line the body cavities that are closed to the exterior separated by a clear fluid called serous fluid. Important to decrease friction by moving organs (heart, stomach) Occur in pairs : parietal layer lines (covers inside) viseral layer lines (covers outside) Types of Serous Membrane: 1. Peritoneum – abdominal Cavity 2. Pluera – surrounding the lungs 3. Pericardium – surrounding the heart Connective Tissue Membrane Synovial Membrane Composed of soft areolar connective tissue and contain no epithelial cells at all. Line the fibrous capsules surrounding joints where they provide a smooth surface and secrete a lubricating fluid. Language of Anatomy and Body Membranes