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Anatomy and Physiology
Anatomy
 the study of the structure (morphology) and shape of the body parts and their relationships to one
another; in other words, what are things called?
 from the Greek word cut (tomy) apart (ana)
Gross Anatomy
Microscopic Anatomy
– the study of large easily observable body structures
– the study of microscopic structures of the body
Physiology
 studies the functions of these parts or asks the question, how do they work?
 nature (physio) and study of (ology)
Subdivisions of Physiology
1. Neurophysiology – explains the working of the nervous system
2. Cardiac Physiology – studies the function of the heart, which acts as a muscular pump to keep
blood flowing throughout the body
The two disciplines are closely interrelated because the functional role of a part depends on how it is
constructed.
Levels of Organization
The human body is the sum of its parts and these parts can be studied at a variety of levels of organization.
1. Atoms are the simplest level.
2. Two or more atoms comprise a molecule
3. Macromolecules are large, biologically important molecules inside cells.
4. Organelles are aggregates of macromolecules used to carry out a specific function in the cell.
5. Cells are the basic living unit.
6. Tissues are groups of cells functioning together.
7. Groups of tissues form organs
8. Groups of organs function together as organ systems
9. Organ systems functioning together make up an organism.
Anatomical Position
In order to avoid confusion when describing the body, it is always described in the anatomical position.
In the anatomical position, a person stands erect, legs together and arms by their sides, with their head,
eyes, toes and palms of the hands facing forward. It is important to remember that the palms face forward
as their relaxed position is generally facing inwards.
The anatomical position allows us to describe the position of structures in relation to their surroundings,
e.g. ‘the heart lies above the diaphragm’. The anatomical position avoids confusion as to whether the
body is lying down or standing up.
You should also bear in mind that when looking at a person in the anatomical position, their right side
will be on your left. The structures will always be described as they are to the subject rather than as they
appear to you.
Anatomical planes and directions
Planes
When preparing to look at the structures of the body, medical students find if necessary to make a section
or cut. When the section is made through the body wall or through an organ, it is made along an
imaginary line called plane.
A sagittal section is an imaginary plane that travels vertically from the top to the bottom of the body,
dividing it into left and right portions.
Language of Anatomy and Body Membranes
Anatomy and Physiology
There are three major anatomical planes; axial, coronal, and sagittal.
Anatomical Position
Axial
(transverse plane)
Coronal
(frontal plane)
Sagittal
Description
This plane cuts the body horizontally, into superior (upper) and inferior
(lower) portions.
This plane cuts the body vertically, into anterior (front) and posterior
(back) portions.
This plane cuts the body vertically, into left and right portions.
If the body is cut in the sagittal plane, exactly along the middle of the body, it is known as the midsagittal,
and when the half of the midsagittal is further cut we call it parasagittal.
Direction
Direction is used, when the body is in the anatomical position to explain the location of a structure
relative to the structures surrounding it.
Direction
Description
Towards the front of the body
Anterior (or ventral)
(in front of).
Posterior (or dorsal) Towards the back of the body (behind).
Superior (or cranial) Above (on top of).
Inferior (or caudal) Below (underneath).
Away from the mid line of the body
Lateral
(towards the sides).
Towards the mid line of the body
Medial
(towards the middle).
Away from the body surface (towards
Deep
the inner body).
Towards the external surface of the
Superficial
body.
Nearer to the trunk of the body.
Proximal
Furthest from the trunk of the body.
Distal
Regions
The body is split up
into two main areas,
the
axial
and
appendicular regions.
The axial region
refers to the head,
vertebral column and
trunk,
and
the
appendicular region
refers to the pelvic
girdles and the upper
and lower limbs. Each
area is further divided
into
descriptive
regions.
Language of Anatomy and Body Membranes
Example
The breastbone area is anterior to the heart.
The heart is posterior the breastbone area.
The heart is superior to the diaphragm.
The diaphragm is inferior to the heart.
The arms are lateral to the chest.
The heart is medial to the arm.
The lungs are deep to the rib cage.
The skin is superficial to the skeleton.
The shoulder is proximal to the elbow.
The elbow is distal to the shoulder.
Anatomy and Physiology
Cephalic
Frontal
Facial
Occipital
Orbital
Buccal
Thoracic
Sternal
Umbilical
Inguinal
Pubic
Genital
Perineal
Dorsum
Vertebral
Cervical
Description (pertaining
to)
Head
Forehead
Face
Back of the head
Eye cavity
Cheek
Chest
Breastbone area
Navel (belly button)
Groin
Mons pubis (pubic bone)
Reproductive organs
Perineum
Back
Spinal column
Neck
Lumbar
Sacral
Lower back
Sacrum
Axial regions
Appendicular regions
Upper limb
Description (pertaining to)
Clavicular
Acromial
Scapular
Interscapular
Axillary
Brachial
Antebrachial
Cubital
Carpal
Digits
Pollicis
Palmar
Lower Limb
Gluteal
Coxal
Femoral
Patellar
Popliteal
Crural
Tarsal
Calcaneal
Pedal
Plantar
Clavicles
Acromion of the shoulder
Scapula
Between the two scapulae
Armpit
Arm
Forearm
Elbow
Wrist
Fingers
Thumb
Palm of the hand
Buttocks
Hip
Thigh
Front of the knee
Back of the knee
Leg
Ankle
Heel
Foot
Sole of the foot
Body cavities
There are two main cavities within the body, the ventral and the dorsal cavities.
The dorsal body cavity is at the back of the body and is the smaller of the two cavities. It can be further
divided into the upper and lower portions, the cranial cavity and the vertebral canal respectively.
The ventral body cavity is at the front of the body and is the larger of the two cavities. It can be further
divided into three cavities, the thoracic cavity, abdominal cavity and pelvic cavity also called as the
abdominopelvic cavity. The thoracic and abdominal cavities are divided by the diaphragm and the
abdominal and pelvic cavities are continuous with each other.
Name
Description
Boundaries
Dorsal cavity (Small cavity at the back of the body.)
Upper portion.
Bounded by the skull.
Cranial
cavity
Lower portion.
Bounded by the vertebral column,
Vertebral
intervertebral discs and surrounding
canal
ligaments.
Ventral cavity (Large cavity at the front of the body)
Large cavity
It is bound laterally by the ribs
Thoracic
above the
(covered by costal pleura) and the
cavity
diaphragm.
diaphragm inferiorly (covered by
diaphragmatic pleura)
Large cavity
It is bound superiorly by the
Abdominal
Language of Anatomy and Body Membranes
Contain
Brain and meninges.
Spinal cord, spinal nerve
roots.
Heart, lungs, trachea,
oesophagus, large blood
vessels and nerves.
Gastrointestinal tract, spleen,
Anatomy and Physiology
cavity
below the
diaphragm.
Pelvic cavity
Small cavity
below the brim of
the pelvis.
diaphragm, laterally by the body
kidneys and adrenal glands.
wall, and inferiorly by the pelvic
cavity.
It is bounded superiorly by the
Urinary bladder, genitals,
abdominal cavity, posteriorly by the sigmoid colon and rectum.
sacrum, and laterally by the pelvis
Quadrants and regions of the abdomen
The abdomen can be divided by two lines into 4 quadrants or by 4 lines into 9 regions.
The two lines that divide the abdomen into quadrants form a cross, the centre of which is positioned over
the umbilicus (belly button). These quadrants are often used to indicate the location of pain.
Quadrant Name
Right upper
quadrant
Left upper
quadrant
Right lower
quadrant
Left lower
quadrant
Contains
Liver, gallbladder, right kidney, duodenum, a portion of the ascending and transverse
colons and the small intestine.
Stomach, spleen, left kidney, pancreas, a portion of the descending and transverse
colons and the small intestine.
Appendix, caecum, a potion of the ascending colon and the small intestine.
A portion of the descending and transverse colons and the small intestine.
QUADRANTS OF THE ABDOMEN
There are two vertical lines and two horizontal lines that divide the abdomen into a grid. The vertical lines
also known as lateral lines are positioned using the middle of each clavicle as a reference. The upper
horizontal line (also known as the transpyloric or subcostal line) is positioned at the level of the pylorus of
the stomach close to the subcostal margin of the ribs. The lower horizontal line (also known as
transtubercular line) is positioned at the level of the anterior superior iliac spines of the coxal (hip) bone.
Language of Anatomy and Body Membranes
Anatomy and Physiology
REGIONS OF THE ABDOMEN
Body Membrane
 A thin, flexible layer of tissue covering surfaces or separating or connecting regions, structures, or
organs.
 Covers the body surface.
 Line the body cavities.
 Forms protective sheets around the organs.
Types of Body Membrane
 Epithelial (covering & lining membranes)
 Cutaneous Membrane
 Mucous Membrane
 Serous Membrane
 Connective Tissue Membrane (line the fibrous capsules in the joints)
 Synovial Membrane
Cutaneous Membrane
 Composed of keratinizing stratified squamous epithelium.
 Underlying dermis is dense (fibrous) connective tissue.
 Exposed to air and is dry.
Mucous Membrane
 Composed of epithelium resting on a loose connective tissue membrane called a lamina propria.
 Lines all the cavities such as respiratory, digestive, urinary, and reproductive tracts.
 Always moist because they are continually bathed in secretions.
 Absorption and secretion.
 Most secretes mucus but not all times.
Language of Anatomy and Body Membranes
Anatomy and Physiology
Serous Membrane
 Layer of simple squamous epithelium resting on a thin layer of areolar connective tissue.
 Line the body cavities that are closed to the exterior separated by a clear fluid called serous fluid.
 Important to decrease friction by moving organs (heart, stomach)
 Occur in pairs :
parietal layer lines
(covers inside)
viseral layer lines
(covers outside)
Types of Serous Membrane:
1. Peritoneum
– abdominal Cavity
2. Pluera
– surrounding the lungs
3. Pericardium – surrounding the heart
Connective Tissue Membrane
Synovial Membrane
 Composed of soft areolar connective tissue and contain no
epithelial cells at all.
 Line the fibrous capsules surrounding joints where they
provide a smooth surface and secrete a lubricating fluid.
Language of Anatomy and Body Membranes