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ENGLISH I
FOR AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING (AND RELATED
SCIENCES)
E.T.S.I.A-UPV
2007-2008
BASIC-INTERMEDIATE GRAMMAR REVIEW
Chapter 1.
PARTS OF SPEECH
Chapter 2.
SENTENCE CONSTRUCTION
Chapter 3.
PUNCTUATION
Chapter 4.
COMMON MISTAKES WITH VERBS
Chapter 5.
COMMON MISTAKES WITH VOICE
Chapter 6.
COMMON MISTAKES WITH NUMBER
Chapter 7.
COMMON MISTAKES OF STRUCTURE, PUNCTUATION AND STYLE
Chapter 1.
PARTS OF SPEECH
1.1 THE NOUN
A noun names a place, person, thing, quality, state or action.
There are 4 kinds of noun:
lecturer, lesson.
Common
A common noun is a general name
Proper
A proper noun is the particular name of a person or
Coventry, Malcolm.
place. A proper noun is always used with a capital letter
Collective
Abstract
Noun
A collective noun is the name given to a group
team, population.
A collective noun is singular in form, but may
grammatically either singular or plural, depending upon
the purpose it serves
The committee was
unanimous... (as a group)
The committee argued..
(as individuals)
A abstract noun is the name of a quality, state or action.
passion, excellence.
An abstract noun represents something which can not
be touched
A noun can have various grammatical relationship with other words in a sentence.
Subject
A noun is the subject of a verb when it is carrying out an action in the
Ian recorded
sentence. To determine the subject, ask 'who' or 'what' before the
the results
verb; the answer will reveal the subject.
Direct
Object
A noun is the direct object of a verb when it is the person or thing
receiving the action. To determine the object, ask 'whom' or 'what'
after the verb; the answer will reveal the direct object.
Indirect
A noun is the indirect noun of a verb when it is the person or thing for He sent a
1
Ian recorded
the results
Object
whom or to whom the action is performed. To determine the indirect
object, ask 'to whom' or 'for whom' after the verb. The answer will
reveal the indirect object.
message to
his boss
1.2 THE PRONOUN
The pronoun is used in place of a noun. Like a noun indicates a person place or thing, but,
unlike a noun, it does not name the person, place or thing.
There are five main types of pronoun:
Personal.
Demonstrative.
Relative.
Interrogative.
Reflexive.
Personal
The personal pronoun is so called because it stands for the 3 persons, first (I, me, etc.), second
(you, yours, etc.) and third (it, theirs, etc.). The personal pronoun indicates the person or object
carrying at the action, the person or object towards whom or which the action, the person or
object to whom or which the action is carried out or an attribution or possession by someone or
something.
Subject:
I, you, he, she, it, we, they.
She writes the report
Object:
me, you, him, her, it, us, them.
The speaker greeted her.
Possessive:
mine, yours, his, hers its, ours, theirs.
The credit was his.
Demonstrative
The demonstrative pronoun points out a person
or thing
i.e. this, that, these,
those
e.g. Do not forget
those
Note that when a demonstrative pronoun is followed by a noun (this person), it is classified as
an adjective and not as a pronoun.
Relative
The relative pronoun relates (or joins) one clause to another. The relative pronoun is placed at
the beginning of the second clause and refers to an antecedent (a noun or other word or
structure acting as a noun) that appeared in the first clause. The relative pronoun itself acts as a
subject, object or attributer of possession (or other agency) in the second clause, e.g.:
She is the engineer (noun) who (subject) invented the device.
He is the one (pronoun) whom (object) the manager promoted
He is the type of engineer (noun phrase) whose (possessive) work (object) the public (subject)
admired.
You wrote the report (whole idea) for which (agent) I (subject) give you (indirect object) thanks
(objet).
The following are examples of relative pronouns:
Subject:
Who (persons), which, that (things), what I will tell you (the incident understood)
(noun or idea understood).
what (subject) caused the problem
Object:
whom (persons) which, that (things),
what (noun or idea understood).
Other
Agent:
to whom (persons), by which (things),
from what (noun or idea understood).
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Interrogative.
The interrogative pronoun helps to ask a question:
Subject:
who? which? what?
Who is in charge?
Object:
whom? which? what?
Whom did you choose?
Possessive:
whose? of which? of what?
Whose choice was it?
Reflexive.
Reflexive pronoun are formed by adding '-self' or 'selves' to the personal pronouns or adjectives:
myself, ourselves,
himself, themselves.
We prepared
ourselves.
1.3 THE VERB
The verb is the word of action, however it can express a state of being.
Voice
The Verb can take two voices
Active Voice: When the subject carries out the action
The student reject the hypothesis.
Passive
Voice:
The hypothesis was rejected by the
student.
When the action is carried out on the
subject.
Mood
Indicative
The Indicative
1.4 THE ADVERB
There are 2 main types of adverb:
1.4.1 Simple Adverb.
A simple adverb amplifies the meaning of a verb, adverb or adjective in some way. It can be
concerned with time, place, manner or degree (weekly, there, quickly, extremely). Many adverbs
end in '-ly' Examples of simple adverbs are as follows:
a. The machinist works quickly; the engine performs well; efficiency is now improved; the
lecturer spoke loudly. (All these adverbs amplify verbs).
b. He designed an extremely efficient motor; her work is very original. (These amplify
adjectives}.
c. He works very methodically; she writes quite well. (These adverbs amplify adverbs).
1.4.2 Conjunctive Adverb.
A conjunctive adverb acts like a conjunction and it also acts like an adverb. It links but does not
join 2 main clauses and also amplifies the main clause of which it is a part. Note that a
conjunctive adverb is not sufficient by itself to join 2 main clauses; the junction must be
completed by either a comma plus a co-ordinating conjunction or by a semicolon.
Examples of conjunctive adverbs are 'consequently', 'hence', 'however' and 'furthermore',
'moreover', 'nevertheless' and 'therefore'(She is a good engineer; furthermore she is a good
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magistrate. He cannot write good English, therefore he is an ineffective engineer)
Adverbs, like adjectives,' have degrees of comparison -the positive, the comparative and the
superlative. Most adverbs form the comparative and superlative by prefixing with 'more' and
'most' , but some adverbs are compared irregularly.
Examples of adverbs and their degrees of comparison are as follows :
Positive Comparative Superlative
quickly
more quickly most quickly
late
later
latest
ill
worse
worst
little
less
least
much
more
most
well
better
best
1.5 THE ADJECTIVE
An adjective modifies. qualifies or describes a noun or pronoun, amplifying in some way it's
meaning (dull lecture, bright student, offensive remark.. conciliatory gesture).
The definite article (the) and the indefinite article (a, an) can be described as adjectives.
Adjectives have degrees of comparison, positive, comparative and superlative. Many
comparatives and superlatives are found by prefixing with 'more' and 'most' or by adding '-er'
and - est' ; some degrees of comparison are irregular, however.
Examples are as follows:
Positive Comparative
Superlative
beautiful more beautiful most beautiful
brave
braver
bravest
good
better
best
large
larger
largest
bad
worse
worst
1.6 THE PREPOSITION
A preposition shows the relationship between a noun or pronoun and some other words in a
sentence (to Coventry. from Russia, to James Bond, out of Africa, towards your degree, at
once) .
Certain verbs are customarily followed by particular prepositions, the brackets showing
alternatives:
1. Of. Accuse, approve, boast (about), complain (about), consist, convince (about), cure,
despair, dream (about), excuse (for), expect (from), hear (from), think (about), warn
(against).
2. From. Defend (against), demand (of), differ, prevent. prohibit, protect (against).
3. In. Encourage, help(with), include, persist.
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4. On. Consult (about), economise, experiment (with), lean (against), perform (in), vote
(for), write (about).
5. To. Accustom, appeal (for), apply (for), attend, confine, consent, prefer, react (against).
6. At. Amused (by), arrive (in), astonished (by), point (to), shocked (by), surprised (by),
wonder (about), work (on).
7. For. Ask (of), act (on), blame, provide, vote (on), wait (on).
8. With. Agree, compete, contrast, correspond, help (in), interfere (in), quarrel (about).
Some verbs can be followed by more than one preposition:












be - away, back, out, in, over, on, up to.
call - at, out, on, up, off.
draw - in, back, up, off.
give - away, up, back, in.
knock - at, off, over, out.
let - off, down, in, out.
made - in, of, from, by.
make - out, up (both have several meanings) .
put - up, out, on, down, off, away.
rub - out of, after, over.. in, into.
set - out, off, up.
take - off, after, up, to, in, down, over.
1.7 THE CONJUNCTION.
A conjunction joins words or groups of words. There are 2 types of conjunction:
1.7.1 Co-ordinating Conjunctions.
A co-ordinating conjunction joins words or groups of words of equal grammatical stature, i.e. .2
nouns, 2 adjectives, 2 phrases, 2 main clauses, 2 subordinate clauses. Examples of coordinating conjunctions are 'and' , 'or' .'but' , 'yet' , 'nor' and 'so' ; examples of their use are as
follows:





joining nouns -ladies or gentlemen.
joining adjectives -aged but sprightly.
joining phrases -small yet well formed.
joining main clauses -the elephant is neither small nor particularly agile.
joining subordinate clauses -who ran quickly but not very elegantly.
1.7.2 Subordinating Conjunctions.
A subordinating conjunction joins a subordinate clause to a main clause. The following are
examples of those in common use:




Time -when, since, until, while (work ceased while 'Neighbours' was on the television).
Reason -because, as, for (she stopped work as she was tired).
Condition- although, if, unless (Unless criminals are deterred, they will offend).
Purpose- in order that, so that, lest (the wreckage was removed so that so that traffic
could continue).
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
Comparison -than (The student did better in laboratory work than in examinations).
1.8 THE INTERJECTION
An interjection expresses emotion. It is an exclamation of surprise, anger, delight, grief or
consternation (Nonsense! Welcome! Help!)
Note, therefore, that an interjection is almost invariably followed by an exclamation mark.
Chapter 2.
SENTENCE CONSTRUCTION.
2.1 The Phrase.
A phrase is a group of words which hang together but which do not contain a finite verb. A
phrase acts as a single part of speech (Adjective -in appropriate units, Adverb -at the end of the
report. Noun -to award a degree).
2.1 The Clause.
A clause is a group of words containing a finite verb.
2.2.1 Main Clause.
If a clause makes one complete statement, it is a main clause (the contestant was awarded the
main prize).
2.2.2 Subordinate Clause.
If a clause cannot stand alone. but depends for its meaning on some other word or words in the
sentence, it is a subordinate clause. Subordinate clauses are classified according to their use:
1. A noun clause is used as the subject or object in a sentence. e.g. :
a. Subject -That the student will graduate is our prime objective.
b. Object -He knows that the Engineering Institutions will further his career.
An adjectival clause is used in place of an adjective (She studied the manual which detailed
company conventions for engineering drawings).
2. An adverbial clause is used in place of an adverb, e.g. :
a. Time -They neglected work when the opportunity occurred.
b. Place -The machine was placed where everyone could see it.
c. Reason -Because her work deteriorated, she was reprimanded.
3. Adverbial clauses of manner, purpose, result, condition, concession and degree can also be
formed.
4. Elliptical Clause. A clause is called elliptical when part of the clause is omitted because, it can
be inferred from the context. e.g. ;
a. Verb- I used more fuel than you (did).
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b. Subject -While (she was) working. she kept meticulous records.
The use of ellipsis is frequently better style than repetitive or pedantic inclusion of every word in
a formal construction. However. take care that an elliptical construction does not result in
imprecise expression or incomplete comparison
2.1 The Sentence.
A sentence is a group of words which contains a finite verb and makes complete sense on its
own.
2.3.1 Simple Sentence.
A simple sentence consists of only a main clause. It contains one finite verb (An enquiry was
held. The Chartered Engineer reported his finding.
2.3.2 Compound Sentence.
A compound sentence contains 2 or more main clauses. joined by a co-ordinating conjunction
or a semicolon. e.g. ;
1. The spirit is strong. but the beer is weak.
2. The manager bellowed. his colleagues winced and the workers sniggered.
3. The hooter sounded; the workers hurried home.
2.3.3 Complex Sentence.
A complex sentence contains one or more main clauses together with one or more
subordinate clauses. e.g. :
o
o
o
o
o
As soon as she had read the experiment guide (adverbial clause of time).....
...the student opened her log book (main clause).......
...which had been in her briefcase (adjectival clause)......
...and started work promptly (main clause).....
...in order that she could finish the experiment in good time (adverbial clause of
purpose).
Chapter 3.
PUNCTUATION
3.1 The Full Stop.
The full stop is used to mark the end of a sentence. Use a full stop to separate statements
between which there is no true continuity of thought.
3.2 The Question Mark.
The question mark is used to end an interrogative sentence
Did you write this?
3.2 The Exclamation Mark.
The Exclamation mark is used to end an exclamatory sentence phrase or word.
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Beware! Stop!
3.4 The Comma.
The comma separates the elements of a sentence; it is the most frequently used, and least
emphatic, of the internal punctuation marks. The comma has the following uses:
1. It separates 2 independent clauses joined by a co-ordinating conjunction (The money
was available, but we were late with our bid) .If, however, the 2 clauses are short (The
force is applied and the material deflects) or closely related, e.g., have the same subject
(I worked hard and achieved my objective), you may omit the comma.
2. It separates words, phrases or clauses in a series (You will be assessed by coursework,
multiple choice questions, computer based questionnaires and the whims of your
peers!) .It is usual to omit a comma before the 'and' connecting the last two items of a
series.
3. It separates 2 adjectives, each of which modifies a noun separately (He was a tall,
handsome engineer). The comma could be replaced by 'and' .
4. It sets off a phrase or long adverbial clause coming before the main clause (Having
completed her coursework, the student engineer relaxed in the pub) .
5. It is used to emphasise a word, phrase or clause in the middle of a sentence. Note that
2 commas must be used (The lecturer, however, disagreed with our experiment plan.
The only alternative, the Factorial method, was given full consideration).
3.8 BRACKETS.
Brackets enclose supplementary or explanatory matter of smaller relevance to the sentence
than that set off by commas or dashes, e.g. 'The most suitable engine would be the 1600 (Ford
CVH)'
.
3.9 INVERTED COMMAS.
Inverted commas are always used in pairs. They say, in effect, 'quote -unquote'. It is
recommended that single inverted commas be used where possible; double inverted commas
can then be used for quotes within quotes (The foreman asked 'Did you say "seven kg" or
"eleven kg"?').
3.10 THE APOSTROPHE.
The apostrophe is a mark of omission, indicating that a word has been intentionally shortened. It
is used as follows:
1. To show omission of a letter or letters (it's = it is, it has; they're = they are). This use of
the apostrophe is appropriate only to the writing of personal letters. It should not be
used in any formal writing, e.g. for coursework in SOE.
2. To show possession, e.g.
a. The student's aim.
b. The engine's power output -the power output of one engine.
c. The engines' power output -the power output of all the engines.
Possessive pronouns never take an apostrophe (its = of it, hers = of her, ours = of us) .
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Chapter 4 COMMON MISTAKES WITH VERBS
4.1 INTRODUCTION TO MISTAKES SECTION
The following section gives examples of errors of grammar and syntax (sentence construction)
and show how such errors can be avoided and corrected.
Errors are illustrated in the left hand columns and suggested corrections in the right hand
columns.
The corrections offered often are not the best; it would generally be better to restructure the
sentence completely. In order to clarify the errors the corrections are small; where appropriate,
further improvements are shown. The corrections given are of an individual style and are not
definitive. Use your own style, as long as it is consistent.
Errors of the types shown in this section will often lead to misunderstanding. In technical writing,
such as formal reporting, such errors will lead to confusion and unclear communication. This, in
turn, may result in your reader being unable to determine, or misconstruing, your understanding
of principles. The result will be loss of credit (or marks!) and the responsibility must lie with the
student.
Thus, although poor English might not be directly penalised, it might well lead to poor grades.
4.2 INCORRECT MIXTURE OF TENSES.
In compound sentences consistent tenses for the verbs should be used. In complex sentences
the verbs in the subordinate clauses should be adjusted to the tenses of the main verbs. The
following examples illustrate:



The aggressive manager, whom all had disliked since her arrival, announced that she
would penalise poor punctuality.
The more easy-going director, whom all have respected since his appointment, admits
that he, sometimes. will not be punctual himself.
In both sentences the verbs in the subordinate clauses indicate what happened before
and after the action in the main Clal.lSes. In the first example the main verb
(announced) is in the past tense, so the verbs in the subordinate clause must be in the
past perfect or pluperfect (had disliked) and the future-in-the-past (would penalise) .In
the second example the main verb (admits) is in the present tense, so the verb in the
subordinate clause must be in the present tense (are not) also.
Error.
Correction.
The midwife said the date has not been fixed. The midwife said the date had not been fixed.
The company will be going public in the New
Year was going to issue a prospectus.
The company will be going and public in the
New Year and will be issuing a prospectus.
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4.3 INAPPROPRIATE TENSES
4.3.1 Use of Conditional Tenses.
When dealing with suggestions, estimates and projected ideas, the tense used must reflect that
the idea may, or may not, be realised. For example, if two options are being compared, it is
incorrect to write 'it will cost £500 for a new Acme Widget, whereas the cost of a Grungley
Sprockle will be only £490' or 'free time will be better utilised in study than in socialising' .As
options may not be taken up, the correct versions are 'it would cost £500 for a new Acme
Widget, whereas the cost of a Grungley Sprockle would be only £490' or 'free time would be
better utilised in study than in socialising' . However, the simple present or simple future tenses
should be used for statements of fact, e.g., 'The Grungley device is 46 millimetres in diameter'.
Error.
Correction.
It is essential that the chosen device will be
painted yellow after assembly.
It is essential that the chosen device should be
painted yellow after assembly.
If we choose the Widget there will be risk to
life.
If we choose the Widget there would be risk to
life.
4.4 VERB ERRORS IN WRITING MINUTES OF MEETINGS
Minutes of meetings are written in reported speech. The correct tenses are, therefore, the
simple past (did), the past perfect (had done) and the future-in-the-past (would do), e.g. , 'The
Senior Course Tutor had been notified that the department's rugby coach would report the
results of the post-match party by telephone' .In reported speech, every sentence must make
sense when preceded by 'he (or she) said that. ..'.
The tenses used in discussion at a meeting are moved one stage further back, in terms of tense
timing. Thus:





'I am preparing my report' (present) becomes 'He was preparing his report' (past).
'I told the clients yesterday' (simple past) becomes 'she had told the clients the previous
day' (past in the.
'We have reached an impasse' (past in the present) becomes 'they had reached an
impasse' (past in the past).
'He will find out tomorrow' (future) becomes 'he would find out the next day' (future in
the past).
'We were always prepared for that' (continuous past) becomes 'They had always been
prepared for that' (continuous past in the present) .
A difficulty sometimes arises in minute writing when phrases and constructions in everyday
speech are incorrect in written English. For example, a speaker at a meeting might easily say
'The train is arriving in November' .The sense is projected into the future, but 'is arriving' is not
an authentic future tense. The writer of the minutes has, therefore, to translate the speech into
'The train will arrive in November' before framing the minute 'The train would arrive in
November'.
Error.
Correction.
The committee agreed that the spanner will
be used.
The committee agreed that the spanner would
be used.
The solution may be built in 2 weeks,
provided 5 technicians were at work.
The solution might be built in 2 weeks,
provided 5 technicians were at work
The rescue operation will require extensive
The rescue operation would require extensive
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engineering back-up.
engineering back-up.
Chapter 5 MISTAKES WITH VOICE.
Managers and leaders are often required to write documents in which orders or instructions are
given. This requires tact but is often well justified, e.g. safety orders; it also requires complete
clarity. In any form of writing which conveys orders, sentences with active verbs are shorter,
sharper and more direct - and therefore have more impact - than sentences with passive verbs.
The passive form (My lab book was stolen) is acceptable when the doer of the action is not
known or is not important.
Consider the sentence 'When a fire alarm sounds, the security officers should be given a list of
all tools out of the store' .The sentence does not specify who is responsible for the action. The
duty store-person could not be blamed if he or she expected the foreman to carry out the action.
It is more positive to order 'When a fire alarm sounds the duty store-person is to give a list of all
tools out of store to the duty security officer'.
Error.
Correction.
Emergency lighting is to be provided.
The Chief Engineer is to provide emergency
lighting.
The computer room was to be locked by Mr
Mr Abell was to lock the to computer room.
Abell.
The design package was to be submitted
by the student.
The student was to submit the design package.
Permission is to be sought from head
office.
Ms Baker is to seek permission from head office.
All electrical machinery is to be isolated.
The foreman is to ensure that all electrical
machinery is isolated.
Chapter 6 MISTAKES WITH NUMBER.
6.1 DISAGREEMENT BETWEEN SUBJECT AND VERB.
A verb must agree in number with its subject, e.g.
a. My favourite food is apples (food is).
b. Engineers were his favourite topic of conversation (engineers were).
c. Our supply of oily rags was inadequate (supply was).
Singular subjects joined by 'and' require a plural verb (Her inspiration and perspiration are
exemplary) .
However, if 2 singular subjects are thought of as a single unit, use a singular verb (fuel and air
11
mixture is injected into the combustion chamber). The following are usually considered to be
single units: a R & D department, a Gin and Tonic, a process of trial and error.
Phrases introduced by 'with', 'along with', 'together with' or 'as well as' have no influence on the
verb (This vehicle. with fuel and load, has unacceptable braking performance). Singular
subjects joined by 'or' or 'nor' require singular verbs (The Chief Engineer or his Deputy is to test
the new motor).
If one of the subjects joined by 'or' or 'nor' is singular and the other plural, the verb should agree
with the closest word (Neither the teacher nor the students were ready for the experiment.
Neither the objectives nor the overall aim was achieved).
Error.
Correction.
The balance of payments do not show a good
trend.
The balance of payments does not show a
good trend.
The main objectives of the experiment is to...
The main objectives of the experiment are to.
..
The cause and effect of this phenomenon is...
The cause and effect of this phenomenon
are...
The advantages of solution A, including its top
score against criterion 3, makes it it the most
suitable
The advantages of solution A, including its
top score against criterion 3, make it the most
suitable
The series of experiments have shown errors.. The series of experiments has shown errors
6.2 SINGULAR EXPRESSIONS.
The following antecedents are singular and therefore require singular verbs:
each. neither one, each one, nobody, someone, anyone, either, everyone, either one,
somebody, no one, anybody, neither, everybody.
Examples are 'either is correct' .'everyone is welcome' . Beware of phrases separating t~ese
pronouns from their verbs (Neither of the options was practicable) . Singular expressions take
singular pronouns and possessive adjectives (Everyone should record hie or her data.
Everybody must submit his or her formal report) . In some cases we are forced to use the plural
'they' or 'them' to avoid a sentence sounding silly (I keep hoping that everyone will pass, but
they never do. Everyone warned me, but I did not listen to them) .In the first example it is hoped
that 'each person' (singular) will pass; in the second example 'every person (again singular)
warned the writer. Note how the constructions clearly create the plural im- pression (each one of
a number of people) .It is logical, therefore, that in both cases the pronoun should be followed
by 'they' .It might be considered more appropriate to abandon the use of singular antecedents.
The following reconstructions are clearer: 'I keep hoping that all my students will pass. but they
never do. All the other staff warned me but I did not heed them. 'None' may be singular or plural
(Are any rooms available? No. f, there are none. Is there arly oi 1 1 eft? No. there is none) . i 1Error. Correction. ...neither of which are in. ..neither of which is the A41 class. t in the A41
c1.~ss. Neither the Pelton Wheel nor Neither the Pelton Wheel the Archimedes screw are. ..nor
the Archimedes screw is. .. None of these experiments None of these experiments are
pertinent. is pertinent.
6.3 SINGULAR OR PLURAL EXPRESSIONS
In sentences that contain expressions like 'one of those people who '. writers are sometimes
unsure whether to use a singular or a plural verb after 'who' .If 'who' stands for 'one' we should
say 'who is' ; if 'who' stands for 'people' we should say 'who are' (Mr Charles is one of those
people who are in support of students. Ms Baker is the only one of those people who is not
supportive).
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The nouns 'kind', 'sort' and 'type' are singular and therefore require singular verbs ('That type of
computer is now obsolete' or 'Computers of that type are now obsolete') .
Error.
Correction.
Brian is one of those men who tempers high
standards with humility.
Brian is one of those men who temper high
standards with humility.
Derek is the only one of the team who are
always early at their desk.
Derek is the only one of the team who is
always early at his desk.
That sort of machine are always unreliable.
That sort of machine is always unreliable.
6.4 INCONSISTENCY IN NUMBER
Many nouns add an 's' for the plural (bicycle, bicycles, balloon. balloons) and others change
their form (mouse, mice, die, dice). With such nouns the selection of the appropriate verb form
is not difficult. Some collective nouns cause confusion (team, committee, party) .For strict
grammatical accuracy, you should use singular verbs with such nouns (The committee was
drunk, The team has made a touchdown).
When the emphasis is on the individual members of a group. a plural verb may be used (The
team were fighting among them- selves. The committee are not agreed on the choice of prime
mover. This group usually eubmits excellent work. This class prefers to show their appreciation
by throwing money to their teacher.)
Having decided on a singular or plural verb, it is important be consistent with pronouns and
possessive adjectives. Writers should be consistent unless they transfer from the group' to the
'members of the group' concept. (The School of Engineering presents good teaching on design
through its Design Team Leader. The Cabinet pretends that its policies are effective. The
Government of that country maintain that their aggression is religiously justifiable.)
In technical documents, dimensions and units generally take singular verbs. (Fifty Hertz is
enough. 208 kN/ml is a typical figure for the Young's Modulus of steel. 30 weeks is long enough
to complete this module.) When the word 'number' is itself the subject, it is safe to treat it as
follows:
1. Treat it as singular if it is associated with 'the' (the definite article). (The number of
students in the 301DES class is very large) .
2. Treat it as plural if it is associated with 'a' (the indefinite article) .(A number of students
were in the 301DES class) .
Error.
Correction.
The Committee are invited to make a
submission.
The Committee is invited to make a
submission.
2 weeks are sufficient to complete this report. 2 weeks is sufficient to complete this report.
The number of students likely to fail this
module is too small
The number of students likely to fail this
module are too small
Chapter 7 MISTAKES OF STRUCTURE, PUNCTUATION and style.
7.1 LACK OF FINITE VERB
13
A sentence must include at least one main clause with a finite verb. A finite verb is a verb with
an identifiable subject, which it must agree with in number. The finite verb shows the time -past,
present or future -when the action takes place by its tense. A subordinate clause of a sentence
also has a finite verb but does not make sense on its own.
A finite verb may consist of more than one word, (might have been designed) and the words
that make up the finite verb do not have to be all together. They might be interrupted, for
example, by an adverb (We shall soon become used to working together) .
Error.
Correction.
Further to my log book report of 17 Jan.
I refer to my log book report of 17 Jan.
The Dean of Engineering was to order new tools
for the lab. To be ordered by 31 Mar.
The Dean of Engineering was to order
new tools for the lab by 31 Mar.
Facilities for conducting low Reynold's Number
research.
The staff had to consider facilities for low
Reynold's Number research
7.2 LACK OF PUNCTUATION BETWEEN SENTENCES
Every piece of written work must consist of separate well constructed sentences. Sentences
should not be too long; a maximum of 30 words is advised. Writers should also try to avoid
introducing more than two concepts in a sentence; any more has a marked tendency to confuse
the reader. Sentences should be separated by adequate punctuation - normally full stops,
question marks or exclamation marks. e.g.:
Internal combustion engines can be described under two headings, the oil engine (otherwise
known as the Diesel or Compression Ignition (CI) engine) in which the compression ignites the
fuel air mix and the Spark Ignition (SI) engine in which the mixture is ignited by a sparking plug
which has a timed electric arc across its electrodes.
This is a dreadful sentence; it is very long and intro- duces a large number of demanding
concepts. It would be especially incomprehensible for readers without a tech- nical background.
Compare it with this:
There are two main types of Internal Combustion (IC) engine. the Spark Ignition (SI) engine and
the Compression Ignition (CI) engine. The CI engine is sometimes known as the Diesel or Oil
engine. Both types of engine are supplied with a fuel air mixture. In the CI engine the mixture is
ignited spontaneously by the pressure in the cylinder. In the SI engine a timed electric sparking
plug provides the source of ignition.
The second paragraph is easier to read because the sentences are shorter. The concepts
presented are intro- duced in small stages; this further adds to the readability. Clearly. the
second version requires a few more words. However. the effort is well worth the enhanced
clarity.
Note that 2 main clauses in a sentence can be joined by a semicolon or by a co-ordinating
conjunction.
Error.
Correction.
My last exam was in Maths the result was
poor.
My last exam was in Maths. The result was
poor.
The camshaft acts on the valve only one
camshaft in the engine.
The camshaft acts on the valve. There is only
one camshaft in the engine.
14
The exhaust nozzle of the engine controls
expansion the diagram shows its main
features.
The exhaust nozzle of the engine controls
expansion. The diagram shows its main
features.
7.3 TWO SENTENCES JOINED BY A COMMA
Main clauses should be separated by co-ordinating conjunctions (with or without commas
according to the length and context) . (The office temperature dropped and all work ceased)
.Altelnatively. appropriate punctuation. such as the semicolon. can be used. (The office
temperature dropped; all work ceased).
If there are more than 2 main clauses in a sentence. and the last 2 are linked by a co-ordinating
conjunctjon. a comma js enough to link the others (Harp is sharp. Guinness is good for you but
cigarettes are downright unhealthy).
Some sentence constructs are not adequately separated by a comma (She turned out the
lights. he opened the champagne). A stronger break is given by a semicolon, a co-ordinating
conjunction or a subordinating conjunction. e.g. :



She turned out the lights; he opened the champagne.
She turned out.the lights and he opened the champagne.
She turned out the lights. as he opened the champagne.
The conjunctions are listed in Section 7. You should beware of using conjunctive adverbs as coordinating conjunctions (see later).
Error.
Correction.
Resources of high grade hydrocarbon fuels
are diminishing, engine designers must
anticipate spontaneous ignition problems.
Resources of high grade hydrocarbon fuels are
diminishing, so engine designers must
anticipate spontaneous ignition problems.
or
Resources of high grade hydrocarbon fuels are
diminishing. Engine designers must anticipate
spontaneous ignition problems.
or
Resources of high grade hydrocarbon fuels are
diminishing; engine designers must anticipate
spontaneous ignition problems.
7.4 SEMICOLON USED AS A COMMA
When parts of a sentence are separated by semicolons, each part must contain a main clause
(This course is long, hard and demanding: it should be enjoyable, however) .
Semicolons can also be used as a stronger comma when writing a list of items, one or more of
which already includes commas. (See Section 10 on Punctuation).
Error.
Correction.
The School of Engineering is a respected
and envied member of the profession;
commanding enormous salaries.
The School of Engineering graduate graduate is
a respected and envied member of the
profession, commanding enormous salaries.
Flying is not inherently dangerous;
Flying is not inherently dangerous, although, like
although, like sea, it is unforgiving of errors. the the sea, it is unforgiving of errors.
7.5 COLON NOT PRECEDED BY A COMPLETE MAIN CLAUSE
15
A colon must be used before an item or a list. It is a common error to use a semicolon. The
colon should be introduced by a grammatically complete statement.
Error.
Correction.
My priorities are: to get my degree, to swim
for my county and to get a new motor cycle.
Here are my priorities: to get my degree, to
swim for my county and to get a new motor
cycle.
The important properties are: stiffness,
hardness and toughness.
The important properties are stiffness, hardness
and toughness.
This experiment shows: the resonant
frequency of the tuned circuit, how it can be
varied and how it might be used in a radio
receiver.
This experiment shows following: the resonant
frequency of the tuned circuit, how it can be
varied and how it might be used in a radio
receiver.
7.6 OMITTING COMMAS
Poor punctuation can often lead to confusing writing. A comma should be inserted at a point
where you would pause when speaking. The following illustrates the way in which a comma can
change the meaning of a sentence:
Error.
Gerald went out, after an argument with Hermione.
Gerald went out, after an argument, with Hermione.
Correction.
Log books will be collected after the
experiment by the staff.
Log books will be collected, after the
experiment, by the staff.
(Who is doing the experiment?)
7.7 MISUSING COMMAS WITH DESCRIPTIVE PHRASES
Commas must always be used to separate adjectival (descriptive) clauses, e.g. :
Aluminium, which is not stiff enough, should not be used.
Aluminium which is not stiff enough, should not be used.
The first sentence prohibits the use of any aluminium. The second sentence implies that a
suitably stiff aluminium might be found.
Error.
Correction.
DC motors, which have a torque in excess of
20 kN, would be ideal for this application.
DC motors which have a torque in excess of
20 kN would be ideal for this application.
(The first sentence implies that all DC motors have torque in excess of 20 kN) .
7.8 PARENTHETICAL USE OF COMMAS
Descriptive statements can often be taken out of a sentence without changing its meaning, e.g.
:
The engine, which is very noisy, runs at 1600 RPM.
16
It is permissible to use dashes instead of commas, especially if the sentence has many commas
for other uses.
The statement 'which is very noisy' is a parenthetical statement. i.e. it could be put in
parentheses or brackets.
It is common to add clauses, phrases or words into sentences which restate others, e.g. : Jim
Smith, the student engineer, is unwell today.
In the sentence above, the phrase 'the student engineer' describes Jim Smith in different words.
Note, however, that the phrase is separated from the rest of the sentence by two commas
(again, the statement could be separated by dashes if required)
.
Error.
Correction.
Finally, in the interests of fairness the
candidate..
Finally, in the interests of fairness, the
candidate..
R & D, as it affects this company's future is
vital.
R & D, as it affects this company's future, is
vital.
A test is done and if successful, the item is
used.
A test is done and, if successful, the item is
used.
However, you view the problem, the motor is
too heavy.
However you view the problem, the motor is
too heavy.
7.9 COMMAS IN LISTS
Commas are often used to punctuate lists in a sentence. The items of the list may be words,
phrases or clauses. Note that it is usual to omit the comma before the 'and' or 'or' connecting
the final item in a list (She was not charming, attractive or bright).
Error.
Correction.
Are faith, hope and charity, essential in
Engineering?
Are faith, hope and charity essential in
Engineering?
Key units in this lesson are Volts, Amps,
Ohms, as well as Farads
Key units in this lesson are Volts, Amps and
Ohms as well as Farads.
7.10 COMMAS BETWEEN ADJECTIVES.
Adjectives, which modify a noun. can be dependant or independent.
1. Dependant adjectives cannot sensibly have their order changed (Wolfgang is an able
German student) .
2. Independent. adjectives can have the word 'and' inserted between them. Their order is
not important.
When an adjective and noun are commonly associated (old man, welfare state, engineering
principles) we can regard them as a joint expression. To insert another adjective between them
would modify the expression (old silly man, welfare democratic state, engineering mechanical
principles).
Error.
Correction.
17
He is a young, brilliant lecturer.
He is a young brilliant lecturer.
(The first sentence implies that all lecturers are brilliant).
Jackie is a good, solid modeller.
Jackie is a good solid modeller.
(The first sentence implies that Jackie models in a solid manner, whereas she models solid
structures) .
7.11 COMMAS BREAKING ESSENTIAL LINKS
Students commonly make the mistake of separating adverbs or adjectives from the adjacent
words they qualify or modify.
Error.
Correction.</B< TD>
The engine runs, noisily.
The engine runs noisily.
A comma must not separate the subject or object from the verb, except when groups of words
are inserted parenthetically.
Error.
Correction.
The Coventry University, engineering,
graduate is is an admirable person.
The Coventry University engineering graduate
is an admirable person.
The exception is exemplified below:
Jim, the Coventry University engineering graduate, is an admirable person.
7.12 MISUSING THE APOSTROPHE
It is a very common error for students to omit or misplace the apostrophe. To avoid such errors,
follow these guide-lines:
1. To show possession, add an apostrophe's' to singular nouns (engine's flywheel) and to
plural nouns which do not end in's' (these sheep's wool).
2. Also to show possession, add an apostrophe to plural nouns ending in's' (these
students' marks are dreadful).
3. Remember that possessive pronouns (its, theirs. ours, his, hers, yours etc.) are never
given apostrophes.
4. To show contractions (you're for you are) the apostrophe replaces the missing letters.
Do not this technique in formal writing, i.e. your coursework. It is more appropriate to
personal letter writing.
5. Plurals of commonly accepted abbreviations do not require an apostrophe (PhDs.
MBEs, MOTs, VIPs etc).
The possessive form. however. would require an apostrophe (the PhD's gown).
Error.
Correction.
The cars MOT is due.
The car's MOT is due.
Gentlemens Toilet.
Gentlemen's Toilet.
These hotels prices.
These hotels' prices.
Those girl's partners
Those girl's partners.
The PhDs gown is soup-stained. The PhD's gown is soup-stained
18
7.13 UPPER-CASE INITIALS
Upper-case, or capital letters should be used for the particular. but not for the general. e.g. :
Many chief engineers are Chartered Engineers; our Chief Engineer, however, is not a Chartered
Engineer.
Upper case initials should be used for the names of the following:
1. People (John Jones. Margaret Cameron. Attila the Hun).
2. Countries. cities. rivers. seas. oceans. lakes etc. (England. Ireland. Scotland and
Wales).
3. Geographic regions (the West Midlands). Lower case is used for a descriptive word for
a region (the south of England).
4. Nationalities and languages (Dutch, Cambodian), races and religions (Arabic. African.
Presbyterian, Islamic) and adjectives derived from these names.
5. Organisations. companies and institutions (Coventry University, School of Engineering,
The Dog and Duckk).
6. Ranks, titles, professions and appointments only when writing of one specific person
(The Head of Sales has a large company car. A head of sales might have a large
company car. Dr Robertson has studied this for longer than many other doctors).
7. First word and important words in the titles of films. books, papers etc. This also applies
to important historical periods. events and documents (The Cruel Sea. A Brief History of
time. The Sting. Pursuit of Excellence, The Dark Ages, Magna Carta) .
Error.
Correction.
Your department is here. Your Department is here.
Bring a copy of fishing.
Bring a copy of 'Fishing'
My director is angry.
My Director is angry.
7.14 MISUSING HYPHENS
A hyphen links two or more words to make a single word which has its own meaning. Linked
words which come before nouns which they describe are usually hyphenated, e.g. :
red-hot, ice-cool, gin-clear, pitch-black, load-carrying strut, current-conducting cable, circuit-loading resistance.
Such linked expressions do not need hyphens, however, when used as nouns ('a steady-statepower-balance computation' as opposed to 'a computation of the steady state power balance').
Error.
Correction.
The company has a policy for offending
clients.
The company has a policy for offendingclients.
Ted was known for his death defying nature.
Ted was known for his death-defying nature.
7.15 RELATING PRONOUNS TO ANTECEDENTS
A pronoun must refer to an identifiable word or group of words (the antecedent) and can be
substituted for that word or phrase. In the sentence 'The students loved beer so they bought lots
of it' , observe the following:
1. The pronoun 'they' refers to the students.
19
2. The pronoun 'it' refers to beer.
Ambiguity can be caused if we do not specifically refer pronouns to the antecedents correctly.
('Remove the bearings from the motors and scrap them' would be better as 'Remove the
bearings from the motors; retain the motors and scrap the bearings').
Pronouns must agree in number with their antecedents.
Error.
Correction.
Pronouns must agree in number with its
antecedents
Pronouns must agree in nmuber with their
antecedents.
Computing would help your studies if you
could borrow one.
Computing would help your studies if you could
borrow a PC.
.
7.16 PRONOUNS- INCORRECT AGREEMENT A
pronoun has different forms according to whether it is used ,as the subject or direct object of a
sentence, e.g., 'She' (subject) becomes 'her' (object) .
The subject form should be used for a pronoun when it is the subject of a verb (You and I are
partners).
The object form should be used for a pronoun when it is the direct object of a verb (Most
students prefer them). The object form should also be used after prepositions (Over me. after
you. under him).
Writers are often confused by such sentences as 'I would be grateful for an appointment for my
wife and me to discuss the loan' .It is a common mistake to write 'my wife and I' . However, you
would not think of writing 'an appointment for I' .Therefore. the first sentence is clearly correct.
The point is that, when using pronouns in pairs, you should use the same form as if the pronoun
were alone.
The following list represents some very common mistakes made by students in submission of
written work. It is advisable to study the list carefully.
Error.
Correction.
The project included many experiments
which was successful.
The project included many experiments which
were successful.
The Mech Eng Dept was asked for the use of The Mech Eng Dept was asked for the use of its
their lathe.
lathe.
One feels that it is the best spanner you can
buy.
One feels that it is the best spanner one can
buy.
One cannot judge a student's analytical skill
by reading their essays.
One cannot judge a student's analytical skill by
reading his or her essays.
7.17 HANGING PARTICIPLES AND OTHER PROBLEMS WITH PARTICIPLES
Consider the following typical sentence taken from a lab log book report, 'Recording the
deflection of the spring, it is possible to determine its stiffness.' The first part of the sentence is a
participial phrase which fails to relate action to any person or thing. The participle is left
hanging.
20
It would be better to write 'Recording the deflection of the spring. we were able to determine its
stiffness.'
However, lab reports should be in the passive voice. Therefore, the sentence would best be
written 'The spring deflection was recorded; this enabled the stiffness to be determined.'.
Introductory participles are a decorative technique and are not advised in technical writing.
7.18 USING THE GERUND WITHOUT POSSESSIVE
Students commonly make mistakes with gerunds; a gerund is a verbal noun that is formed by
adding 'ing' to a verb. Some typical examples of gerunds follow:
cycling, plotting, winning, adding, passing, trying.
Here are some typical mistakes with gerunds:
Error.
Correction.
He can try but I cannot see him passing the
exam.
He can try but I cannot see his passing the
exam.
(In the example above, passing is the gerund.)
I see no point in you doing...
I see no point in your doing ...
(In the example above, doing is the gerund.)
The rule is that when you use a noun or pronoun before a gerund you must use t,he possessive
form. The first two examples show this.
There are exceptions to the rule. however. The possessive form need not be used if:
1. you wish to emphasise the pronoun or noun (I cannot see Johnson passing his degree).
2. the noun is plural (I dislike mathematicians methods).
3. the noun is qualified by an adjective (I hate uneducated engineers writings).
7.19 CONJUNCTIVE ADVERBS JOINING MAIN CLAUSES
The use of conjunctive adverbs (however, furthermore, otherwise, therefore) to join main
clauses in a sentence is a common student error.
Conjunctive adverbs are best used to start a sentence. Here are some typical examples:
Error.
Correction.
The DC motor is not suited to this task,
furthermore is too heavy.
The DC motor is not suited to this task it and is
too heavy.
or
The DC motor is not suited to this task;
furthermore. it is too heavy.
The engine must not run at too high a
temperature, otherwise it might seize.
The engine must not run at too high a
temperature, or it might seize.
or
The engine must not run at too high a
temperature; otherwise. it might seize.
7.20 MISPLACING ADVERBS
21
Confusion can easily be caused by failure to apply an adverb to the correct verb, adjective or
adverb. Furthermore. misplaced adverbs are a common fault of style in written English.
Error.
Correction.
Jim would only use these metals for cylinder
heads.
Jim would use only these metals for cylinder
heads.
(The first sentence excludes the use of 'these metals' for all other applications. The second
shows that 'only these metals' are considered suitable for cylinder heads.)
The teacher would only be in his office for 3
days.
The teacher would be in his office for only 3
days.
The students nearly arrived for class 15
minutes late.
The students arrived for class nearly 15
minutes late.
7.21 CONFUSING NOUNS OF NUMBER AND NOUNS OF QUANTITY
Another common error is exemplified below.
Error.
Correction.
Improvements in teaching methods should
result in less student failures.
Improvements in teaching methods should
result in fewer student failures.
Some opponents believe that they will bring
fewer high calibre graduates, researchers
and progress.
Some opponents believe that they will bring
fewer high calibre graduates and researchers
and less progress.
The word 'fewer' should only be applied to nouns referring to 'countable' items (people.
machines. incidents, events) .The word 'less' is applied to items which cannot be quantified in
discrete items (pride, progress, quality, danger) .
7.22 CONFUSING COMPARITIVES AND SUPERLATIVES
The sentence 'My elder brother is 6 feet tall.' tells us that there only two brothers. If the word
'eldest' had been used then we are told that there are more than two brothers. Failure to make
these distinctions in comparatives and superlatives is a common error in student writing. Words
describing contrasts between 2 items usually end in 'er' ; words which contrast more than 2
items usually end in 'est' .
Error.
Correction.
The Ford is the better of my 3 cars.
The Ford is the best of my 3 cars.
Your bicycle is similar but mine is best. Your bicycle is similar but mine is better.
She is the younger student of the 10.
She is the youngest student of the 10.
7.23 ERRORS WITH PREPOSITIONS
Errors with prepositions are common; the following are just a few examples:
Error.
Correction.
John's radio is different to Arthur's.
John's radio is different from Arthur's.
Mike's bicycle, compared to Lucinda's, is
lighter.
Mike's bicycle, compared with Lucinda's, is
lighter.
22
We must try and get the best possible
results.
We must try to get the best possible results.
The staff are sympathetic with the students'
needs.
The staff are sympathetic to the students'
needs.
British Standards must be complied to.
British Standards must be complied with.
The jam adhered with the blanket.
The jam adhered to the blanket.
The Engineer substituted with his colleague. The Engineer substituted for his colleague.
The engine is identical to the one we bought The engine is identical with the one we bought
last week.
last week.
7.24 THE SPLIT INFINITIVE
An Infinitive is a verb form such as 'to be' , 'to have been' or 'to be warned' .Split infinitives
should be avoided where possible: however exceptions can be made in order to avoid
complicated sentence form or 'quaint' expression.
Error.
Correction.
To boldly go where no man has gone before.
Boldly to go where no man has gone before.
Kim was seen to quickly record her results.
Kim was seen to record her results quickly.
The specimen is expected to linearly deform
as load is applied.
The specimen is expected to deform linearly as
load is applied.
how to avoid five ERRORS OF STYLE.
1 LONG SENTENCES.
It is very easy to find written work which has long, involved sentences. They are very common in
newspapers (even the so called 'quality' press). Longer sentences are more difficult to
understand. Sentences should rarely exceed 30 words and should not contain more than two
concepts (or ideas).
2 POOR PARAGRAPH CONSTRUCTION
Written work should be properly planned. Paragraphs are the key units of written
communication; they are units of concept rather than of length. However, paragraphs of equal
(and preferably small) size reassure the reader that there will be breaks in the work.
A paragraph should be structured like any other unit of written communication. One technique is
to introduce a concept and dedicate the remainder of the paragraph to explaining. justifying or
criticising that concept. Other techniques exist and are successful; consult any good reference
for guidance.
3 EXCESS VERBIAGE AND AFFECTED EXPRESSION.
Technical writing should be concise and should not include excess verbiage. Common errors of
style are made by the addition of unnecessary adjectives. Some examples are as follow:




a real chance of success.
parking strictly prohibited,
smoking definitely not allowed,
efficiency definitely much improved
23
Students are often tempted to use catch phrases, slang and other idiomatic forms: this is not
appropriate to technical writing. Newspapers, in particular. tend to contain very poor written
English; in some cases this is a deliberate effort to create an authoritative tone through special
forms of language. Television reporters word forms and voice tone patterns, which can irritate
the listener, are another example of this distortion of communication. Some examples of these
word forms are as follows:





Whitehall mandarins
early talks
Green issues
wages spiral
new wonder drug hikes share price
Students often seem to believe. quite wrongly. that their work is graded by volume rather than
quality. Staff do not enjoy reading long coursework submissions. especially when much of the
bulk is unnecessary padding.
Many introductory phrases add no meaning and can be deleted completely.. some examples
follow:



'In this day and age'
'It is an accepted wisdom that'
'It must be pointed out that'
Some phrases can be unnecessarily long and are better replaced with short.. simple
alternatives. e.g:



At this moment in time = now.
Due to the fact that = because.
In the event that = if.
4 TAUTOLOGY
Tautology is a common error in students' written work. Tautology is repeating things and is often
caused by writers attempting to present an authoritative tone. In particular, when writing formal
reports students can easily make the mistake of tautology.
Error.
Correction.
The subject of this report is about the Oil
Engine.
The subject of this report is the Oil Engine.
It is essential that fire extinguishers must be
kept fully charged and ready.
It is essential that fire extinguishers be kept
fully charged and ready.
Ali is a man of tall height.
Ali is a tall man.
5 MIXED METAPHORS
Metaphors are devices by which we apply a figurative description to an object or action. e.g. 'a
shining example' or a 'world wide problem'. The use of metaphors is rarely appropriate to
technical writing. However, when they are used they often become mixed and produce amusing
results. Some examples are as follows:

This is a pretty kettle of fish which might blow up in our faces.
24


Let us burn down the gulf between our two peoples.
This is a two edged sword; we might get our fingers burnt.
The course consists of lectures, written exercises and independent studies. It will be graded on
the basis of a written examination. Literature: Quirk, R. and Greenbaum, S. 1999. A Student’s
Grammar of the English Language.
Language: English
25