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Transcript
Chapter 2 Atoms are the basic unit of matter. Atoms are made of protons, neutrons and electrons. Protons are positively (+) charged and found in the nucleus. Neutrons are neutrally (0) charged and found in the nucleus. Electrons are negatively (-) charged and are found outside the nucleus. Elements are pure substances that contain only one kind of atom. Isotopes differ in the number of neutrons, but have the same number of protons and electrons. Section 2-1 Nonradioactive carbon-12 Nonradioactive carbon-13 6 electrons 6 protons 6 neutrons 6 electrons 6 protons 7 neutrons Radioactive carbon-14 6 electrons 6 protons 8 neutrons Compounds are formed be the chemical bonding of 2 or more kinds of elements or atoms. Symbols and subscripts are used to show compounds. H2O – Symbols are used to represent the elements in the compounds. Subscripts show how many atoms of that element are present. The main types of bonds are ionic and covalent. Ionic bonds occur when 1 or more electrons are transferred from one atom to another. Covalent bonds occur when 2 atoms share one or more pairs of electrons. Section 2-1 Sodium atom (Na) Chlorine atom (Cl) Sodium ion (Na+) Chloride ion (Cl-) Protons +11 Electrons -10 Charge +1 Protons +17 Electrons -18 Charge -1 Transfer of electron Protons +11 Electrons -11 Charge 0 Protons +17 Electrons -17 Charge 0 pH is a measure of the hydrogen ions in the solution. The scale is exponential- a pH of 3 is 10X more acidic than a pH of 4. Acids have more hydrogen ions. Bases have fewer hydrogen ions, but more OH- (Hydroxide) ions pH Scale Increasingly Basic Oven cleaner Neutral Increasingly Acidic pH is a measure of hydrogen ions in solution Bleach Ammonia solution Soap Sea water Human blood Pure water Milk Normal rainfall Acid rain Tomato juice Lemon juice Stomach acid Polar molecules have a slightly positive end and a slightly negative end. This causes hydrogen bonds to form. The (+) end of one molecule is attracted to the (-) end of another molecule. Cohesion is the attraction of molecules of the same substance. Adhesion is the attraction of molecules of different substances. Section 2-2 ClCl- Na+ Na+ Water Water Carbon can form 4 covalent bonds either with other carbon atoms or other molecules. These bonds can be single, double or triple. This accounts for the 4 major macromolecules: carbohydrates, lipids, nucleic acids and proteins. Carbon Compounds include Go to Section: Carbohydrates Lipids Nucleic acids Proteins that consist of that consist of that consist of that consist of Sugars and starches Fats and oils Nucleotides Amino Acids which contain which contain which contain which contain Carbon, hydrogen, oxygen Carbon, hydrogen, oxygen Carbon,hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorus Carbon, hydrogen,oxygen, nitrogen, Starch Glucose Section 2-3 Figure 2-16 Amino Acids Section 2-3 Amino group Carboxyl group General structure Alanine Serine Enzymes are proteins that act as catalysts. Catalysts speed up the rate of the reaction by lowering the activation energy. They have special shapes that fit the substrates. Substrates are the reactants in the reaction. Amino acids Section 2-3 Reaction pathway without enzyme Activation energy without enzyme Reactants Reaction pathway with enzyme Activation energy with enzyme Products Figure 2-21 Enzyme Action Section 2-4 Enzyme (hexokinase) Glucose Substrates Products ADP Glucose-6phosphate Products are released ATP Active site Enzyme-substrate complex Substrates are converted into products Go to Section: Substrates bind to enzyme Figure 2-21 Enzyme Action Section 2-4 Enzyme (hexokinase) Glucose Substrates Products ADP Glucose-6phosphate Products are released ATP Active site Enzyme-substrate complex Substrates are converted into products Go to Section: Substrates bind to enzyme Figure 2-21 Enzyme Action Section 2-4 Enzyme (hexokinase) Glucose Substrates Products ADP Glucose-6phosphate Products are released ATP Active site Enzyme-substrate complex Substrates are converted into products Go to Section: Substrates bind to enzyme Figure 2-21 Enzyme Action Section 2-4 Enzyme (hexokinase) Glucose Substrates Products ADP Glucose-6phosphate Products are released ATP Active site Enzyme-substrate complex Substrates are converted into products Go to Section: Substrates bind to enzyme