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EXODUS
John D. Hannah
INTRODUCTION
Title. The name of the second book in the Hebrew Bible is we’ēlleh šemôṯ (“these are
the names”), the first phrase in the book. Sometimes it is shortened to šemôṯ (“names”).
The English title Exodus (“a going out”) transliterates the title in the Septuagint, which
named the book for its central focus, the departure of the Israelites from Egypt. However,
the book covers more than that event. The departure from Egypt is described in 13:1715:21, but the book also describes the circumstances of Jacob’s family before the Exodus,
the journey from Egypt to Sinai, and some of the events that Israel experienced there.
Author. Scholars are divided over the authorship of the Book of Exodus. Skeptical
scholars submit the text to detailed, analytical investigation with the presupposition that
Mosaic authorship is unlikely and the date for the writing of the narrative is quite late.
Liberal scholars approach the book in one of three ways. First, scholars after Julius
Wellhausen attempt to isolate the literary origins of the book, assuming three sources
over a lengthy time span. This is commonly known as the documentary approach or
JEDP theory (but there would be no “D” source in Ex.). (Cf. “The Authorship of Gen.” in
the Introduction to Gen.) Second, the form-critical approach attempts to discover in the
text small literary units through an understanding of the history behind the forms. In this
way these scholars attempt to determine the date of the original writing of the book.
Third, the traditionalist-critical school argues for a long, oral transmission of the
accounts, though the exact recovery of the accounts is unlikely. These three approaches
are similar in their basic assumptions: Moses probably did not write the book, the exact
nature of the events is difficult to determine, and the date of compilation is late.
Evangelicals believe that the book was written by Moses sometime during his stay
near Mount Sinai or shortly thereafter. Support for this view is that the Bible explicitly
witnesses to this fact.
The Bible clearly states that Moses had the ability to have undertaken such a task
(“Moses was educated in all the wisdom of the Egyptians,” Acts 7:22).
The Book of Exodus explicitly verifies Mosaic authorship. God commanded Moses to
write the events of Joshua’s military encounter with the Amalekites (“Write this on a
scroll,” Ex. 17:14). Also Moses wrote the communication the Lord gave him on Sinai
(“Moses then wrote down everything the LORD had said,” 24:4). This recording was
called “the Book of the Covenant” (24:7). On Mount Sinai the Lord told Moses, “Write
down these words” (34:27) and Moses “wrote on the tablets the words of the covenant”
(34:28).
Statements in other portions of the Pentateuch also verify Mosaic authorship.
According to Deuteronomy 31:9, “Moses wrote down this Law [for] . . . the priests.” The
statement in Deuteronomy 31:24 is clear; “Moses finished writing in a book the words of
this Law from beginning to end.”
Other books of the Old Testament witness to the Mosaic authorship of Exodus. David
charged Solomon to obey God’s “laws and requirements, as written in the Law of Moses”
(1 Kings 2:3). Ezra read from “the Book of the Law of Moses” (Neh. 8:1). Also the
Pentateuch is called “the Book of Moses” (Neh. 13:1).
Jesus accepted the Mosaic authorship of Exodus. Jesus introduced a quotation of
Exodus 20:12 and 21:17 with the words “Moses said” (Mark 7:10) and a quotation of
Exodus 3:6 by the words “Have you not read in the Book of Moses” (Mark 12:26).
Date. The date of the Exodus, the date of Jacob’s entrance into Egypt, and the date of
the writing of the Book of Exodus have all been debated by biblical scholars.
1. The date of the Exodus. Some scholars date the Exodus in the 13th century B.C. (ca.
1290, in the reign of Rameses II) while others date it in the 15th century B.C. (1446, in the
reign of Amenhotep II).
Support for the early date comes from the biblical record and archeological evidence.
First, in 1 Kings 6:1 the time between the Exodus and the beginning of Solomon’s temple
construction (in the fourth year of his reign) was 480 years. Since the fourth year of
Solomon’s reign was 966 B.C., the Exodus was in 1446. Also in the time of Jephthah (ca.
1100 B.C.) Israel had been in the land for 300 years (Jud. 11:26). Therefore 300 years plus
the 40 years of the wilderness sojourn and some time to conquer Heshbon places the
Exodus in the middle of the 15th century.
Second, archeological evidence from Egypt during this period corresponds with the
biblical account of the Exodus (see Merrill F. Unger, Archaeology and the Old
Testament. Grand Rapids: Zondervan Publishing House, 1954, pp. 140-5; and Gleason L.
Archer, Jr., A Survey of Old Testament Introduction. Chicago: Moody Press, 1964, pp.
215-6). For example, though Thutmose IV succeeded his father, Amenhotep II, Thutmose
was not the eldest son. (The eldest son was killed by the Lord on the night of the first
Passover, Ex. 12:29.) Amenhotep II (1450-1425 B.C.) repressed insurgents in the early
part of his reign. Semites were forced to make bricks (cf. 5:7-18). Several of the Pharaohs
of Egypt’s 18th dynasty (ca. 1567-1379 B.C.) were involved in building projects in
northern Egypt. “Since Eighteenth Dynasty Pharaohs were very active in Palestinian
campaigns, it would seem reasonable that they would have established garrisons and
store cities (cf. 1:11) somewhere in the Delta regions to facilitate movement between
Syro-Palestinian sites and Egypt itself” (John J. Davis, Moses and the Gods of Egypt, p.
27).
Third, events in Palestine about 1400 B.C. correspond with the Conquest under
Joshua. Archeological evidence suggests that Jericho, Ai, and Hazor were destroyed
about 1400. One scholar has concluded, “All the accredited Palestinian artifactual
evidence supports the literary account that the Conquest occurred at the time specifically
dated by the biblical historians” (Bruce K. Waltke, “Palestinian Artifactual Evidence
Supporting the Early Date of the Exodus,” Bibliotheca Sacra 129. January-March,
1972:47).
Arguments for a late date of the Exodus (ca. 1290) are answerable. First, advocates of
the late date refer to the enslaved Israelites being forced to build the “store cities” of
Pithom and Rameses (1:11). Archeological evidence, it is argued, suggests that these
cities were built in the reign of Rameses II (ca. 1304-1236 B.C.), who then would have
been the Pharaoh at the time of the Exodus. However, those two cities were built at least
80 years before the Exodus. (Moses, 80 years old at the time of the Exodus, 7:7, was not
born until after the events recorded in 1:11.) This would place the building of Pithom and
Rameses before the rule of Rameses II.
This means that the city of Rameses could not have been named for the monarch.
How then is the reference to Rameses to be explained? Rameses may have been a
common name during the time of the Hyksos kings of Egypt (1730-1570 B.C.) Rameses
means “begotten of Ra [Re],” the Hyksos’ sun god. Also the name of the city was
originally spelled Raamses (Heb., ra‘amsēs; cf. ASV, NASB) whereas the Pharaoh’s name
was spelled Rameses or Ramesses (Ra-mes-su).
Second, advocates of the later date for Exodus argue that conditions in the
Transjordan area do not coincide with an early date for the Exodus. Archeologist Nelson
Glueck found no evidence of settlements in Edom, Moab, and Ammon from 1900 to
1300 B.C. Therefore Moses could not have encountered strong opposition there until later
(in the 13th century).
Two replies may be given to this argument. Settled populations need not have existed
at that time; the Edomites, Moabites, and Ammonites may have simply had military
control of those territories though they were semi-nomads. Commenting on Numbers
20:14-17 Unger noted that “there is nothing in the passage which would demand a
developed urban life in Edom or require the building of stout fortresses” (Archaeology
and the Old Testament, p. 151). Also Glueck’s methods have been questioned by other
archeologists and more recent findings suggest that some settlements were in the area,
particularly at Tell Deir Alla (H.J. Franken and W.J.A. Power, “Glueck’s Explorations in
Eastern Palestine in the Light of Recent Evidence,” Vetus Testamentum 21. 1971:11923).
Third, late-date Exodus advocates argue that archeological evidence points to
widespread destruction in Palestine in the 13th century but not in the 15th century.
However, with the exception of Jericho, Ai, and Hazor, Joshua’s military tactics did not
involve destruction of the cities conquered (cf. Josh. 11:13). Waltke notes, “Other
historical events could account for these layers of destruction; namely, the raids into
Palestine carried out by Merneptah of Egypt circa 1230 B.C. or the raids of the People of
the Sea circa 1200 B.C. by the Israelites in their continuing seesaw struggle with the
Canaanites during the time of the Judges” (“Palestinian Artifactual Evidences,” pp. 35-6).
2. The date of Jacob’s entrance into Egypt. If the date of the Exodus is 1446 B.C. then
certain biblical notations help establish other important dates. Since the duration of the
wilderness sojourn was “430 years to the very day” (Ex. 12:40-42), Jacob moved to
Egypt in 1876. (See the chart “Chronology of the Patriarchs,” near Gen. 47:28-31.)
3. The date of the writing of the Book of Exodus. The journey from Egypt to the Sinai
wilderness took exactly three months (Ex. 19:1-2). It would seem logical that Moses
composed the book during or shortly after the encampment at Sinai (1446 B.C.). Thus the
book covers events that occurred sometime before Moses’ birth in 1526 (chap. 2) to the
events surrounding Mount Sinai (1446).
Purpose and Themes. The central events in the Book of Exodus are the miraculous
deliverance of Israel from Egyptian bondage and God’s establishing the theocratic nation
under Moses by means of a new “constitution,” the Mosaic Covenant (19:3-19). Unger
notes, “The aim of the Book of Exodus centers in the great experience of redemption and
the constitution of Jacob’s posterity as a theocratic nation at Mount Sinai. God, connected
heretofore with the Israelites only through His covenant with Abraham, confirmed to
Isaac and Jacob, now brings them to Himself nationally through redemption. As the
Chosen People through whom the Redeemer was to come Jehovah also places them
under the Mosaic Covenant and dwells among them under the cloud of glory”
(Introductory Guide to the Old Testament. Grand Rapids: Zondervan Publishing House,
1951, p. 196).
Thus the Book of Exodus is a connecting link between the origin of the people in
God’s promise to Abraham (Gen. 12:2) and the beginning of the theocratic kingdom
under Moses. The people of promise were miraculously redeemed from servitude and
placed under the Mosaic Covenant so that they might become “a holy nation” (Ex. 19:6),
an avenue of blessing to the Gentiles (Gen. 12:3; cf. “a light for the Gentiles,” Isa. 42:6).
The Book of Exodus, then, stresses redemption and consecration.
Historical Background
1. The history of Egypt before the Exodus. Ancient Egypt stretched a distance of
about 550 miles from Aswan (ancient Syene), the first cataract on the Nile, northward to
the Mediterranean Sea. This area included the narrow Nile Valley (from Aswan to
Memphis) and the Delta, the broad triangle from Memphis to the sea. South of Aswan
was the ancient land of Cush. The name “Egypt” is from Greek (Aigyptos) and Latin
(Aegyptus), forms of the ancient Ha-ku-ptah, an earlier name for Memphis, the capital
city just north of Cairo. When Memphis was the capital, foreigners used it as a
designation for the entire nation. The native population referred to it as Ta-meri (“the
beloved land”) or Kemet (“the black country,” a name reflective of the fertile soil along
the Nile).
Ancient Egypt’s history is divided by scholars into three periods: predynastic (ca.
3500-3100 B.C.), protodynastic (ca. 3100-2686 B.C.), and dynastic (2686-332 B.C.). In the
predynastic period an agricultural population along the Nile progressively became more
sedentary. The emerging civilizations of Upper (southern) and Lower (northern) Egypt
were united by Narmer, the first Pharaoh of Upper Egypt, thus marking the beginning of
the protodynastic period. This period included Egypt’s first two dynasties.
The dynastic period from 2686 to the conquest of Egypt by Alexander the Great in
332 included 29 dynasties. Dynasties 3-6 (ca. 2686-2181 B.C.) were characterized by
rapid progress in culture and technology. In those years, called the Old Kingdom period,
the great pyramids were constructed, and the Pharaohs ruled from Memphis with a strong
absolutist government. The First Intermediate Period (dynasties 7-11; 2181-1991) was a
time of decline. Then came the Middle Kingdom (dynasty 12; ca. 1991-1786) in which
the nation enlarged its borders with the capital at Thebes. Centralized rule was
reestablished under Amenemhet I, founder of the flourishing 12th dynasty.
The 12th dynasty was Egypt’s golden age of art and craftsmanship, in which her
prosperity was restored. In this affluent era Joseph emerged as prime minister of Egypt,
and Jacob and his sons sojourned in Egypt (1876 B.C., Gen.46:6).
Then came the Second Intermediate Period (ca. 1786-1567), comprising dynasties 1317. In the 13th and 14th dynasties Egypt declined. In the 15th and 16th dynasties Egypt
was subjugated and ruled by the Hyksos, a people of mixed Semitic-Asiatic descent.
Because of superior military technology, the Hyksos—using iron chariots and Asiatic
bows—dominated the land for a century and a half from Avaris in the Nile Delta. The
Hyksos were gradually displaced beginning about 1600 when Seqenenre II, prince of
Thebes, rebelled. The history of Jacob’s descendants during the Hyksos period is obscure
(cf. Unger, Archaeology and the Old Testament, pp. 130-5).
Under Ahmose I of Thebes the New Empire period (ca. 1567-1220; dynasties 18-19)
commenced, resulting in one of the most brilliant periods in Egyptian history. Egypt
emerged as an international power and extended her influence beyond the Euphrates
River. During the 18th dynasty the events of the Book of Exodus took place. This was a
time when a new wave of Egyptian nationalism had supplanted the older Hyksos
tolerance of foreigners. The Egyptians embarked on empire-building as a means of
defense, pushing their borders into Palestine. Apparently not wanting to eradicate the
Semitic population already settled in Egypt, the Egyptian Pharaohs used them as slave
labor for building defense projects and royal palaces.
2. The history of Egypt near the time of the Exodus. Amenhotep I ruled in the newly
centralized government from 1546 to 1526 (actually begun by his father Ahmose I) and
was succeeded by Thutmose I (who ruled ca. 1526-1512). Moses was born (ca. 1526) in
this king’s reign (or at the end of the reign of Amenhotep I). This king’s famous
daughter, Hatshepsut, may have been the royal princess who discovered Moses along the
Nile. When Thutmose II (1512-1504) died, Thutmose III was very young. So his
stepmother, Hatshepsut, contrived to make herself ruler starting in 1503. (Thutmose III is
considered king from 1504 to 1482 though Hatshepsut “co-reigned” with him to 1482.)
During Hatshepsut’s brilliant reign Egypt experienced prosperity. In these years
Moses spent his youth in the royal court. After Hatshepsut’s death in 1428 Thutmose III
ruled alone till 1450. Thutmose III liquidated the entire royal court and attempted to
obliterate Hatshepsut’s name from monuments in the land. At that time Moses probably
found the court of Egypt inhospitable and fled to Midian. Thutmose III became a
powerful kingdom builder, extending his empire to include Syria.
Thutmose III was succeeded by Amenhotep II (1450-1425), the Pharaoh of the
Exodus (1446). Unlike his warring father, Amenhotep II seems to have suffered military
reverses because he was not able to carry out extensive campaigns. His weak war efforts
may have resulted from the loss of all or most of his chariots, in the waters of the Sea of
Reeds. The so-called “Dream Stela” of Thutmose IV records that the god Har-em-akht
told the young prince in a dream that someday he would be king. If Thutmose IV had
been the eldest son, proof of his throne-right would have been unnecessary. It is logical,
therefore, to assume that he was a younger son, not the oldest son, of Amenhotep II. This
accords with the statement in Exodus 12:29 that the eldest son of Pharaoh died the night
of Israel’s first Passover.
Thus Thutmose III was the Pharaoh of the oppression and Amenhotep II was the
Pharaoh of the Exodus. Egyptian history after the New Empire Period and up to Greek
rule included the late New Kingdom (dynasty 20, ca. 1200-1085) and the Third
Intermediate Period (1085-663 B.C.; dynasties 21-25) and the Late Period (663-332 B.C.;
dynasties 26-31).
3. The site of the Exodus. The route Israel followed out of Egypt has occasioned much
debate. Complicating the issue has been the inaccurate translation of the Hebrew yām sûp̱
as Red Sea instead of Sea of (Papyrus) Reeds. The area is somewhere between the Gulf
of Suez and the Mediterranean Sea, along the line of the present Suez Canal where there
are many marshy lagoons and lakes.
Two views are held as to the possible site of the Exodus. The “northern view” places
the Exodus at a lagoon bordering the Mediterranean Sea, and the “southern (or central‘)
view” places the Exodus south of Succoth near Lake Balah or Lake Timsah. God led the
Israelites away from the well-traveled and fortified trade route that progressed northward
(“the road through the Philistine country, though that was shorter,” 13:17) into the desert
to avoid contact with Egyptian militia. The northern view assumes that Mount Sinai is in
the vicinity of Kadesh Barnea. The evidence, however, favors the placement of the Sinai
in the peninsula’s southern portion.
The Israelites left Rameses and traveled to Succoth, about 30 miles southeast (Ex.
12:37; Num. 33:5). Near Succoth, the Israelites were miraculously delivered from
Amenhotep II’s chariot army. Also favoring the “southern view” is the fact that the
Desert of Shur (Ex. 15:22), where Israel went after crossing the Reed Sea, is directly east
of Succoth. Another factor is that Lake Balah and Lake Timsah can be affected by strong
east winds in the way described in 14:21. (See the map “Possible Route of the Exodus,”
near Num. 33:1-5.)
1
1
Walvoord, J. F., Zuck, R. B., & Dallas Theological Seminary. (1983-c1985). The Bible
knowledge commentary : An exposition of the scriptures (1:103). Wheaton, IL: Victor
Books.