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LEARNING
Learning
Learning
• Involves change
• Is relatively permanent
• Is acquired through experience
Classical Conditioning
• Classical conditioning is learning by association
– it is sometimes called “reflexive learning”
– it is sometimes called respondent conditioning
• Given by Russian scientist, Ivan Pavlov,
– received the Nobel Prize in science for discovery
Classical conditioning happens when an individual learns to
associate a neutral stimulus (signal) with a stimulus that has
intrinsic meaning based on how closely in time the two stimuli
are presented.
Explanation of classical conditioning came from a dog's
ability to associate the sound of a bell (something that
originally has no meaning to the dog) with the presentation of
food (something that has a lot of meaning for the dog) a few
moments later. Dogs are able to learn the association between
bell and food, and will salivate immediately after hearing the
bell this connection has been made.
Operant/ Instrumental Conditioning
• Operant conditioning is a theory given by Skinner.
• An operant is an action by an organism which results in an
outcome.
• The outcome of the operant serves to reinforce it, either
positively or negatively.
For example, if the outcome is favourable to the organism, the
probability increases that the operant will occur again, and the action is
said to be positively reinforced. If the outcome, however, is
unfavourable - the probability decreases that the operant will occur
again, and the action is said to be punished.
Example:
operant: employee steals money from office
outcome: spends money for personal use (positively reinforced)
employee is more likely to steal again.
operant: employee steals money from office
outcome: employee is caught by manager and punished
employee is less likely to steal again
Classical Conditioning
Operant Conditioning
Association between
stimuli and response
Reinforcement
Based on involuntary
reflexive behaviour
Based on voluntary
behaviour
You eat a new food and then get sick because of flu. However, you
develop a dislike for the food and feel nauseated whenever you smell
it.
This example is classical conditioning because nausea is an
automatic response.
The flu sickness is the US.
The nausea is the UR.
The new food is the CS.
The nausea to the new food is the CR.
Your father gives you a credit card at the end of your first year in
college because you did so well. As a result, your grades continue to get
better in your second year.
This example is operant conditioning because school performance is a
voluntary behaviour.
The credit card is a positive reinforcement because it is given and it
increases the behaviour.
Bandura’s Social Learning Theory
Learning is by observing. It is an extension of operant
conditioning; it also acknowledges the existence of observational
learning and the importance of perception in learning.
Bandura identified three basic models of observational learning:
1. A live model, which involves an actual individual demonstrating
or acting out a behaviour.
2. A verbal instructional model, which involves descriptions and
explanations of a behaviour.
3. A symbolic model, which involves real or fictional characters
displaying behaviours in books, films, television programs, or
online media.
Bandura’s Modeling/Imitation
Child
observes
someone
admired
Child imitates
behavior
that seems
rewarded
Four processes determine the influence that a model will have
on an individual.
1. Attention processes. People learn from a model only when they
recognize and pay attention to its critical features.
1. Retention processes. A model’s influence will depend on how
well the individual remembers the model’s action after the
model is no longer readily available.
2. Motor reproduction processes. After a person has seen a new
behavior by observing the model, the watching must be
converted to doing.
3. Reinforcement processes. Individuals will be motivated to
exhibit the modeled behavior if positive incentives are provided
Reinforcement
• Reinforcement is the process by
which certain types of behaviours are
strengthened. Thus, a “reinforcer” is
any stimuli that cause certain
behavior to be repeated or inhibited.
Four basic reinforcement
strategies
1. Positive reinforcement
2. Negative reinforcement
3. Punishment
4. Extinction
Reinforcement Strategies
Employee
Stimulus
Employee
Behaviour
Employee is on
time
Behavior Modification
Strategy
Positive Reinforcement:
Superior praises the employee
and recommends him for raise
Negative Reinforcement:
Superior avoids harassing or
reprimanding employee
Employee is
asked to avoid
coming late to
work
Employee is still
late
Extinction:
Superior withholds praise and
does not recommend employee
for a raise
Punishment:
Superior reprimands the
employee
BEHAVIOUR MODIFICATION
•Behavior modification is an approach to the
assessment, evaluation, and alteration of behavior.
•Behavior Modification is about reinforcing the
behavior you desire by rewarding the performed
behaviour.
Behaviour modification
• ‘Operate’ on the environment
–alter behaviour to maximize positive
consequences and minimize adverse
consequences
• Law of effect
–likelihood that a behaviour will be
repeated depends on its consequences
ABC Model of Behaviour Modification
A- Antecedents
B- Behaviour
C- Consequences
To modify one’s behaviour (desirable behaviour), bring changes
in “antecedents” or “consequences”
A-B-Cs of behaviour modification
Antecedents
Behaviour
Consequences
What happens
before behaviour
What person
says or does
What happens
after behaviour
Employee
attends
scheduled
work
Employee
receives
attendance
bonus
Example
Attendance
bonus system
is announced
ORGANIZATIONAL
BEHAVIOUR MODIFICATION
The systematic use of learning principles to
influence organizational behaviour.
OB MOD Organizational Applications
1. Well Pay versus Sick Pay
- Reduce absenteeism by rewarding attendance, not absence
2. Employee discipline
- Managers will respond with disciplinary actions such as
oral reprimands, written warnings, and temporary
suspensions. Disciplining employees for undesirable
behaviors tells them only what not to do.
Case: Volunteers can’t be punished
Ann-Marie Jackson is head of a volunteer agency in a large city. She is in
charge of a volunteer staff of over twenty-five people. Weekly, she holds a
meeting with this group in order to keep them informed and teach them the
specifics of any new laws or changes in state and federal policies and
procedures that might affect their work, and she discusses priorities and
assignments for the group. This meeting is also a time when members can
share some of the problems and concerns for what they are personally
doing and what the agency as a whole is doing.
The meeting is scheduled to begin at 9 am sharp every Monday. Lately, the
volunteers have been filtering in every five minutes or so until almost 10
am. Ann-Marie has felt she has to delay the start of the meetings until all
the people arrive. The last few weeks the meetings haven’t started until 10
am. In fact, at 9 am; nobody has shown up. Ann-Marie cannot understand
what has happened. She feels it is important to start the meetings at 9 am
so that they can be over before the whole morning is gone. On the other
hand, she feels that her hands are tied because, after all, the people are
volunteers and she can’t push them or make them get to the meetings on
time.
Q. What advice would you give Ann-Marie? In
terms of reinforcement theory, explain what is
happening here and what Ann-Marie needs to do
to get the meetings started on time.