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Grammar, Mechanics, and Style for Technical Communication English 3153: Thursday, February 11, 2016 Sentences usually include the following: Sentence Structure Subject: The actor who performs the verb of the sentence. Verb: The action performed by the subject of the sentence. Object: The recipient of the action performed by the subject. Predicate: The context provided for the subject and verb. Sentences fall into four categories: Simple Sentence: The researchers dissected the frog so they could examine the tumors on its pancreas. Compound Sentence: The researchers dissected the frog, and they concluded that its tumors resulted from water pollution. Complex Sentence: Despite the peaceful protests of animal-rights organizations, the researchers still dissected the frog. Compound-Complex Sentence: After they dissected the frog, the researchers met near Campus Corner for drinks, but their favorite bar was closed for renovations. Sentence Fragments: Sentence fragments do not have subjects, verbs, and/or complete predicates. Run-on Sentences: Run-on sentences present multiple pieces of information without appropriate punctuation. Common Sentence Problems Incorrect: The bridge collapsed during the thunderstorm because the cement columns under the deck failed unexpectedly and the engineers responsible for the mistake have been fired. Incorrect: The bridge collapsed during the thunderstorm because the cement columns under the deck failed unexpectedly, the engineers responsible for the mistake have been fired. Correct: The bridge collapsed during the thunderstorm because the cement columns under the deck failed unexpectedly, and the engineers responsible for the mistake have been fired. Correct: The bridge collapsed during the thunderstorm because the cement columns under the deck failed unexpectedly. The engineers responsible for the mistake have been fired. Correct: The bridge collapsed during the thunderstorm because the cement columns under the deck failed unexpectedly; the engineers responsible for the mistake have been fired. Subject-Verb Agreement: The verb of the sentence should match the tense and subject of the sentence. Common Sentence Problems Example: The mechanized turtle rampaged across San Francisco. Example: Mechanized turtles normally rampage across populous metropolitan areas, including San Francisco. Example: The mechanized turtle had already reached the Golden Gate Bridge when the military arrived. Example: The military appreciates the threat of mechanized turtles. Parallel Structure: Use the same part of speech for every entry of sentence-level lists and bullet-points. Incorrect: The mechanized turtle had steel scales, four-foot claws, and outwitted its adversaries with its superior intellect. Correct: The mechanized turtle defeated its human adversaries with its steel scales, four-foot claws, and superior intellect. Common Sentence Problems Apostrophes are used for possessives and contractions: Punctuation: Apostrophes Example: The programmers corrected the spreadsheet’s faulty script with two additional lines of code. Example: The programmers’ revised script impressed their manager. Example: The business’s spreadsheets were completely confidential. Example: Why wouldn’t the business share its spreadsheets with its investors, and why didn’t anyone complain? Its/It’s: Use “its” for the possessive form of “it.” Use “it’s” for the contraction of the phrase “it is.” Example: When the accountants initially reviewed the spreadsheet, they noticed several mistakes with its contents. Example: It’s always unfortunate when faulty scripts delay projects. Your/You’re: Use “your” for the possessive form of “you.” Use “you’re” for the contraction of the phrase “you are.” Commas are used for: Punctuation: Commas Lists: Cell theory includes three principles: every organism contains cells, cells perform the biological functions of the organism, and all cells originate from preexisting cells. Appositives: Rudolf Virchow, the most vocal proponent of the third postulate of cell theory, studied cancer during the mid-1800s. Nonrestrictive Clauses: Catharine Beecher summarized cell theory inside The American Woman’s Home, which supplied clear domestic advice for nineteenth-century women. Introductory Phrases: Before cell theory gained support within the scientific community, pathologists seldom used microscopes. Compound Sentences: Contemporary scientists often drew parallels between cell theory and politics, and the metaphor of the cell-state continued well into the twentieth century. Semicolon: Semicolons connect two complete sentences without using the traditional compound structure. Colon: Colons may signal quotations, introduce lists, and explain preceding independent clauses. Punctuation: Other Marks Example: The proposal required the expertise of three different departments: Mechanical Engineering, Physics, and Architecture. Example: The National Science Foundation unanimously endorsed the proposal: the credentials of its coauthors and the quality of its preliminary research seemed incontestable. Hyphen: Hyphens draw the words of adjective phrases together. Example: Twenty-first-century universities depend upon the funds obtained from successful grant applications. Parentheses: Parentheses identify sources and introduce asides. Punctuation: Other Marks Direct quotations and paraphrases are cited using parenthetical citations, footnotes/endnotes, and bibliographies. Direct Quotation (APA): Darwin personally credits Thomas Malthus for the theory of natural selection during the 1859 introduction of the Origin of Species: “This is the doctrine of Malthus, applied to the whole animal and vegetable kingdoms” (Darwin, 1859, p. 5). Citation Guidelines Multiple Authors: (Darwin and Wallace, 1867, p. 24) Multiple Cited Pages: (Darwin, 1859, pp. 33-34) Paraphrase (APA): Darwin personally credits Thomas Malthus for the theory of natural selection during the 1859 introduction of the Origin of Species, which mentions Malthus by name (Darwin, 1859). Footnote (MLA): Darwin credits Thomas Malthus for the theory of natural selection during the 1859 introduction of the Origin, which mentions Malthus by name.¹ ¹ Charles Darwin, On the Origin of Species: A Facsimile of the First Edition (Cambridge: University of Harvard Press, 2003) 5. Direct quotations are introduced using three methods: Citation Guidelines Independent Clause: Darwin credits Thomas Malthus for the theory of natural selection: “This is the doctrine of Malthus, applied to the whole animal and vegetable kingdoms” (Darwin, 1859, p. 5). Dependent Clause: The introduction of the Origin confirms, “This is the doctrine of Malthus, applied to the whole animal and vegetable kingdoms” (Darwin, 1859, p. 5). Integrated Quotation: Darwin consistently labeled natural selection “the doctrine of Malthus, applied to the whole animal and vegetable kingdoms” (Darwin, 1859, p. 5). If the quotation does not need any citation or appears before the period, insert the punctuation inside the quotation marks. Example: Darwin insisted natural selection extended Malthus from human society into the “animal and vegetable kingdoms,” and the theory of evolution spanned multiple fields (Darwin, 1859, p. 5). Example: “Not everyone realizes,” Dr. Barker explained, “how much Darwin used the research of his scientific contemporaries.” Citation Guidelines Misplaced Modifiers: Place descriptive clauses directly after the nouns and pronouns they modify. Incorrect: The report contains several problems written by Calvin. Correct: The report written by Calvin contains several problems. Dangling Modifiers: Introductory phrases should modify one of the subjects of the following independent clause. Miscellaneous: Modifiers and Pronouns Incorrect: Unlike other writing, Calvin appreciates academia. Correct: Unlike other writing, Calvin appreciates academic prose. Indefinite Pronouns: Pair the pronouns “this” and “these” with nouns and use subject pronouns carefully. Incorrect: The snowman heard the chants of the crowd below, and this slowly drew him towards the ledge. Correct: The snowman heard the chants of the crowd below, and this sound slowly drew him towards the ledge. Incorrect: Calvin and Hobbes build countless snowmen during the winter months, and they often unnerve the neighbors. Correct: Calvin and Hobbes build countless snowmen during the winter months, and their sculptures often unnerve the neighbors. Less/Fewer: Use “less” for indefinite amounts and singular nouns. Use “fewer” for measurable quantities. Example: The introductory statistics midterm covered less content than the organic chemistry midterm. Example: Fewer students passed the organic chemistry midterm than the midterm for introductory statistics. Miscellaneous: Word-Choice Then/Than: Use “then” for series of events, times, and causation. Use “than” for direct comparisons. Example: The students checked their grades on the midterm, then frantically emailed the professor. Example: The organic chemistry professor receives more messages than his colleagues who teach statistics. They’re/Their/There: Use “they’re” for the phrase “they are.” Use “their” for possession. Use “there” for location and existence. Example: The professor avoided his students all week because of their questions about the midterm. Example: The students hovered around the department for three hours, but there was no sign of their professor. That/Which: Use “that” for attributions and restrictive clauses. Use “which” for nonrestrictive clauses and after prepositions. Miscellaneous: Word-Choice Example: Nancy said that the zombies had breached the barricades. Example: The zombies that breached the barricades had weapons. Example: Jonathan fired his rifle, which barely slowed the zombies. Example: Nancy knew the direction from which the zombies came. Lose/Loose: Use “lose” for the verb “misplace.” Use “loose” for the adjective “not tight” and the verb “release.” Example: Zombies lose their memories once they become infected. Example: Zombies seem so unnatural because of their loose skin. Affect/Effect: Use “affect” for the verb “impact.” Use “effect” for material outcomes and the verb “cause.” Example: How did the virus affect the intelligence of the zombies? Example: The effects of the zombie virus included higher stamina. Miscellaneous: Word-Choice Check your documents for the following: Grammar and Mechanics Checklist Sentence fragments and run-on sentences. Subject-verb agreement and parallel structure. Correct use of apostrophes, its/it’s, and your/you’re. Correct use of commas (lists, clauses, appositives, etc.). Correct use of semicolons, colons, hyphens, and parentheses. Parenthetical citations with the proper APA/MLA format. Correct use of modifiers, this/these, and subject pronouns. Correct use of less/fewer, then/than, and they’re/their/there. Correct use of that/which, lose/loose, and affect/effect. Before you write any technical document, consider: Rhetorical Situations Relationships: How are you connected with your intended audience? What type of interaction will this audience expect? Objectives: What are the action-based objectives of this document? Genre: What genre will your audience expect for this document, and would another genre achieve your objectives more easily? Personalities: How might your personal characteristics and those of your intended audience influence your document? Conventions: How will you respect the conventions of your field and work environment? Should you break any of these conventions? Remove unnecessary words and phrases. Example: The final completion of the anticipated attack upon the castle was performed by the ninjas after nightfall. Revision: The ninjas eventually attacked the castle after nightfall. Prefer active voice over passive voice. Stylistic Advice: Sentences Passive: The defense of the castle against the ninjas was attempted. Active: The samurai defended the castle against the deadly ninjas. When should technical communicators generally use passive voice? Avoid nominalizations of verbs and adjectives. Suffixes: -tion (examination, transformation, collaboration); -ment (establishment, accomplishment, procurement); gerunds (showing, inspecting, processing); -ty (applicability, continuity, difficulty). Example: The unsuccessful execution of the assault was terminated with the repulsion of the ninjas from the front gate. Revision: The samurai finally repelled the ninjas from the front gate. Only use prepositional phrases when necessary. Stylistic Advice: Sentences Vary the length and rhythm of your sentences: Stylistic Advice: Sentences Combine simple, compound, complex, and compound-complex sentences within your technical documents. Change the opening words of your sentences for improved flow. When should technical writers use simple sentences and longer sentences with more-complicated syntax? How might overusing certain sentence types weaken your prose? Write topic sentences for each section of your document. Topic sentences transition from the subject of the previous section and summarize the content of the upcoming section. Topic sentences typically include transition words which might not appear at the start of the sentence. Examples: furthermore, additionally, by contrast, conversely, indeed, also, similarly, likewise, nevertheless, whereas, while, when, however, whether or not, because, therefore, next, etc. Only use technical terms when common words cannot accurately express the meaning of the sentence. Prefer object-based nouns over generalizations and abstractions. Stylistic Advice: Word Choice Example: The goods were delivered by the company yesterday. Revision: FedEx delivered the shipment of hard-drives yesterday. Example: The goods have recently become much more expensive. Revision: The cost of hard-drives has risen 23% over the past year. Replace Latinate words with their Anglo-Saxon equivalents. Latinate: fabricate, terminate, initiate, utilize, transaction, exist. Anglo-Saxon: build, end, start, use, deal, are. Recognize the connotations of the words from your documents. Use inclusive language, particularly within professional contexts. Why should skilled technical writers follow these five guidelines? Example Paragraph “The permanent neurological impairment typical of chronic inflammatory demyelinating disorders of the central nervous system (CNS), such as multiple sclerosis, is due to the axonal loss resulting from recurrent episodes of immune-mediated demyelination. So far, experimental cell therapy for these disorders has been based mainly on the transplantation of myelinforming cells, or their precursors, at the site of demyelination. Although such an approach can trigger functional recovery and restore axonal conduction, the limited migration of lineagerestricted, myelin-forming cells through the brain parenchyma highlights the beneficial effect of transplantation to the site of the injury. This raises critical issues regarding the therapeutic use of focal cell transplantation to treat diseases in which multifocal demyelination is the main pathological feature. Such issues are compounded by the poor expansion capacity of myelin-forming cells in culture, which greatly limits their availability and further hampers their prospective application in clinical settings” (Pluchino et al., 2003, p. 688). Example Paragraph Multiple sclerosis damages the myelin sheaths which cover the axons of the central nervous system (CNS). These myelin sheaths help transmit information between the nervous system and the body, and the deterioration of these sheaths can cause paralysis, blindness, loss of sensation, etc. Multiple sclerosis and related disorders belong within the category of auto-immune diseases, where the cells of the patient destroy his/her own tissues. While researchers have shown how transplanting myelin-forming cells into subjects with multiple sclerosis improves their symptoms, transplanted cells seldom spread from their original sites. This study will therefore consider the therapeutic limitations of cell transplants for cases of multiple sclerosis where demyelination happens across multiple sites. It will also explain how the slow growth of artificial cultures of myelin-forming cells reduces the clinical usefulness of transplantation.