Download Grammar and Mechanics for Technical

Grammar, Mechanics,
and Style for Technical
Communication
English 3153: Thursday, February 11, 2016
 Sentences usually include the following:
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Sentence
Structure
Subject: The actor who performs the verb of the sentence.
Verb: The action performed by the subject of the sentence.
Object: The recipient of the action performed by the subject.
Predicate: The context provided for the subject and verb.
 Sentences fall into four categories:
 Simple Sentence: The researchers dissected the frog so they could
examine the tumors on its pancreas.
 Compound Sentence: The researchers dissected the frog, and they
concluded that its tumors resulted from water pollution.
 Complex Sentence: Despite the peaceful protests of animal-rights
organizations, the researchers still dissected the frog.
 Compound-Complex Sentence: After they dissected the frog, the
researchers met near Campus Corner for drinks, but their favorite
bar was closed for renovations.
 Sentence Fragments: Sentence fragments do not have subjects,
verbs, and/or complete predicates.
 Run-on Sentences: Run-on sentences present multiple pieces of
information without appropriate punctuation.
Common
Sentence
Problems
 Incorrect: The bridge collapsed during the thunderstorm because
the cement columns under the deck failed unexpectedly and the
engineers responsible for the mistake have been fired.
 Incorrect: The bridge collapsed during the thunderstorm because
the cement columns under the deck failed unexpectedly, the
engineers responsible for the mistake have been fired.
 Correct: The bridge collapsed during the thunderstorm because the
cement columns under the deck failed unexpectedly, and the
engineers responsible for the mistake have been fired.
 Correct: The bridge collapsed during the thunderstorm because the
cement columns under the deck failed unexpectedly. The engineers
responsible for the mistake have been fired.
 Correct: The bridge collapsed during the thunderstorm because the
cement columns under the deck failed unexpectedly; the engineers
responsible for the mistake have been fired.
 Subject-Verb Agreement: The verb of the sentence should match
the tense and subject of the sentence.
Common
Sentence
Problems
 Example: The mechanized turtle rampaged across San Francisco.
 Example: Mechanized turtles normally rampage across populous
metropolitan areas, including San Francisco.
 Example: The mechanized turtle had already reached the Golden
Gate Bridge when the military arrived.
 Example: The military appreciates the threat of mechanized turtles.
 Parallel Structure: Use the same part of speech for every entry of
sentence-level lists and bullet-points.
 Incorrect: The mechanized turtle had steel scales, four-foot claws,
and outwitted its adversaries with its superior intellect.
 Correct: The mechanized turtle defeated its human adversaries with
its steel scales, four-foot claws, and superior intellect.
Common
Sentence
Problems
 Apostrophes are used for possessives and contractions:
Punctuation:
Apostrophes
 Example: The programmers corrected the spreadsheet’s faulty script
with two additional lines of code.
 Example: The programmers’ revised script impressed their manager.
 Example: The business’s spreadsheets were completely confidential.
 Example: Why wouldn’t the business share its spreadsheets with its
investors, and why didn’t anyone complain?
 Its/It’s: Use “its” for the possessive form of “it.” Use “it’s” for the
contraction of the phrase “it is.”
 Example: When the accountants initially reviewed the spreadsheet,
they noticed several mistakes with its contents.
 Example: It’s always unfortunate when faulty scripts delay projects.
 Your/You’re: Use “your” for the possessive form of “you.” Use
“you’re” for the contraction of the phrase “you are.”
 Commas are used for:
Punctuation:
Commas
 Lists: Cell theory includes three principles: every organism contains
cells, cells perform the biological functions of the organism, and all
cells originate from preexisting cells.
 Appositives: Rudolf Virchow, the most vocal proponent of the third
postulate of cell theory, studied cancer during the mid-1800s.
 Nonrestrictive Clauses: Catharine Beecher summarized cell theory
inside The American Woman’s Home, which supplied clear domestic
advice for nineteenth-century women.
 Introductory Phrases: Before cell theory gained support within the
scientific community, pathologists seldom used microscopes.
 Compound Sentences: Contemporary scientists often drew parallels
between cell theory and politics, and the metaphor of the cell-state
continued well into the twentieth century.
 Semicolon: Semicolons connect two complete sentences without
using the traditional compound structure.
 Colon: Colons may signal quotations, introduce lists, and explain
preceding independent clauses.
Punctuation:
Other Marks
 Example: The proposal required the expertise of three different
departments: Mechanical Engineering, Physics, and Architecture.
 Example: The National Science Foundation unanimously endorsed
the proposal: the credentials of its coauthors and the quality of its
preliminary research seemed incontestable.
 Hyphen: Hyphens draw the words of adjective phrases together.
 Example: Twenty-first-century universities depend upon the funds
obtained from successful grant applications.
 Parentheses: Parentheses identify sources and introduce asides.
Punctuation:
Other Marks
 Direct quotations and paraphrases are cited using parenthetical
citations, footnotes/endnotes, and bibliographies.
 Direct Quotation (APA): Darwin personally credits Thomas Malthus
for the theory of natural selection during the 1859 introduction of
the Origin of Species: “This is the doctrine of Malthus, applied to the
whole animal and vegetable kingdoms” (Darwin, 1859, p. 5).
Citation
Guidelines
 Multiple Authors: (Darwin and Wallace, 1867, p. 24)
 Multiple Cited Pages: (Darwin, 1859, pp. 33-34)
 Paraphrase (APA): Darwin personally credits Thomas Malthus for the
theory of natural selection during the 1859 introduction of the Origin
of Species, which mentions Malthus by name (Darwin, 1859).
 Footnote (MLA): Darwin credits Thomas Malthus for the theory of
natural selection during the 1859 introduction of the Origin, which
mentions Malthus by name.¹
 ¹ Charles Darwin, On the Origin of Species: A Facsimile of the First Edition
(Cambridge: University of Harvard Press, 2003) 5.
 Direct quotations are introduced using three methods:
Citation
Guidelines
 Independent Clause: Darwin credits Thomas Malthus for the theory
of natural selection: “This is the doctrine of Malthus, applied to the
whole animal and vegetable kingdoms” (Darwin, 1859, p. 5).
 Dependent Clause: The introduction of the Origin confirms, “This is
the doctrine of Malthus, applied to the whole animal and vegetable
kingdoms” (Darwin, 1859, p. 5).
 Integrated Quotation: Darwin consistently labeled natural selection
“the doctrine of Malthus, applied to the whole animal and vegetable
kingdoms” (Darwin, 1859, p. 5).
 If the quotation does not need any citation or appears before the
period, insert the punctuation inside the quotation marks.
 Example: Darwin insisted natural selection extended Malthus from
human society into the “animal and vegetable kingdoms,” and the
theory of evolution spanned multiple fields (Darwin, 1859, p. 5).
 Example: “Not everyone realizes,” Dr. Barker explained, “how much
Darwin used the research of his scientific contemporaries.”
Citation
Guidelines
 Misplaced Modifiers: Place descriptive clauses directly after the
nouns and pronouns they modify.
 Incorrect: The report contains several problems written by Calvin.
 Correct: The report written by Calvin contains several problems.
 Dangling Modifiers: Introductory phrases should modify one of
the subjects of the following independent clause.
Miscellaneous:
Modifiers and
Pronouns
 Incorrect: Unlike other writing, Calvin appreciates academia.
 Correct: Unlike other writing, Calvin appreciates academic prose.
 Indefinite Pronouns: Pair the pronouns “this” and “these” with
nouns and use subject pronouns carefully.
 Incorrect: The snowman heard the chants of the crowd below, and
this slowly drew him towards the ledge.
 Correct: The snowman heard the chants of the crowd below, and
this sound slowly drew him towards the ledge.
 Incorrect: Calvin and Hobbes build countless snowmen during the
winter months, and they often unnerve the neighbors.
 Correct: Calvin and Hobbes build countless snowmen during the
winter months, and their sculptures often unnerve the neighbors.
 Less/Fewer: Use “less” for indefinite amounts and singular nouns.
Use “fewer” for measurable quantities.
 Example: The introductory statistics midterm covered less content
than the organic chemistry midterm.
 Example: Fewer students passed the organic chemistry midterm
than the midterm for introductory statistics.
Miscellaneous:
Word-Choice
 Then/Than: Use “then” for series of events, times, and causation.
Use “than” for direct comparisons.
 Example: The students checked their grades on the midterm, then
frantically emailed the professor.
 Example: The organic chemistry professor receives more messages
than his colleagues who teach statistics.
 They’re/Their/There: Use “they’re” for the phrase “they are.” Use
“their” for possession. Use “there” for location and existence.
 Example: The professor avoided his students all week because of
their questions about the midterm.
 Example: The students hovered around the department for three
hours, but there was no sign of their professor.
 That/Which: Use “that” for attributions and restrictive clauses. Use
“which” for nonrestrictive clauses and after prepositions.
Miscellaneous:
Word-Choice
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Example: Nancy said that the zombies had breached the barricades.
Example: The zombies that breached the barricades had weapons.
Example: Jonathan fired his rifle, which barely slowed the zombies.
Example: Nancy knew the direction from which the zombies came.
 Lose/Loose: Use “lose” for the verb “misplace.” Use “loose” for the
adjective “not tight” and the verb “release.”
 Example: Zombies lose their memories once they become infected.
 Example: Zombies seem so unnatural because of their loose skin.
 Affect/Effect: Use “affect” for the verb “impact.” Use “effect” for
material outcomes and the verb “cause.”
 Example: How did the virus affect the intelligence of the zombies?
 Example: The effects of the zombie virus included higher stamina.
Miscellaneous:
Word-Choice
 Check your documents for the following:
Grammar and
Mechanics
Checklist
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Sentence fragments and run-on sentences.
Subject-verb agreement and parallel structure.
Correct use of apostrophes, its/it’s, and your/you’re.
Correct use of commas (lists, clauses, appositives, etc.).
Correct use of semicolons, colons, hyphens, and parentheses.
Parenthetical citations with the proper APA/MLA format.
Correct use of modifiers, this/these, and subject pronouns.
Correct use of less/fewer, then/than, and they’re/their/there.
Correct use of that/which, lose/loose, and affect/effect.
 Before you write any technical document, consider:
Rhetorical
Situations
 Relationships: How are you connected with your intended audience?
What type of interaction will this audience expect?
 Objectives: What are the action-based objectives of this document?
 Genre: What genre will your audience expect for this document, and
would another genre achieve your objectives more easily?
 Personalities: How might your personal characteristics and those of
your intended audience influence your document?
 Conventions: How will you respect the conventions of your field and
work environment? Should you break any of these conventions?
 Remove unnecessary words and phrases.
 Example: The final completion of the anticipated attack upon the
castle was performed by the ninjas after nightfall.
 Revision: The ninjas eventually attacked the castle after nightfall.
 Prefer active voice over passive voice.
Stylistic
Advice:
Sentences
 Passive: The defense of the castle against the ninjas was attempted.
 Active: The samurai defended the castle against the deadly ninjas.
 When should technical communicators generally use passive voice?
 Avoid nominalizations of verbs and adjectives.
 Suffixes: -tion (examination, transformation, collaboration); -ment
(establishment, accomplishment, procurement); gerunds (showing,
inspecting, processing); -ty (applicability, continuity, difficulty).
 Example: The unsuccessful execution of the assault was terminated
with the repulsion of the ninjas from the front gate.
 Revision: The samurai finally repelled the ninjas from the front gate.
 Only use prepositional phrases when necessary.
Stylistic
Advice:
Sentences
 Vary the length and rhythm of your sentences:
Stylistic
Advice:
Sentences
 Combine simple, compound, complex, and compound-complex
sentences within your technical documents.
 Change the opening words of your sentences for improved flow.
 When should technical writers use simple sentences and longer
sentences with more-complicated syntax?
 How might overusing certain sentence types weaken your prose?
 Write topic sentences for each section of your document.
 Topic sentences transition from the subject of the previous section
and summarize the content of the upcoming section.
 Topic sentences typically include transition words which might not
appear at the start of the sentence.
 Examples: furthermore, additionally, by contrast, conversely, indeed,
also, similarly, likewise, nevertheless, whereas, while, when, however,
whether or not, because, therefore, next, etc.
 Only use technical terms when common words cannot accurately
express the meaning of the sentence.
 Prefer object-based nouns over generalizations and abstractions.
Stylistic
Advice: Word
Choice
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Example: The goods were delivered by the company yesterday.
Revision: FedEx delivered the shipment of hard-drives yesterday.
Example: The goods have recently become much more expensive.
Revision: The cost of hard-drives has risen 23% over the past year.
 Replace Latinate words with their Anglo-Saxon equivalents.
 Latinate: fabricate, terminate, initiate, utilize, transaction, exist.
 Anglo-Saxon: build, end, start, use, deal, are.
 Recognize the connotations of the words from your documents.
 Use inclusive language, particularly within professional contexts.
 Why should skilled technical writers follow these five guidelines?
Example
Paragraph
 “The permanent neurological impairment typical of chronic
inflammatory demyelinating disorders of the central nervous
system (CNS), such as multiple sclerosis, is due to the axonal loss
resulting from recurrent episodes of immune-mediated
demyelination. So far, experimental cell therapy for these
disorders has been based mainly on the transplantation of myelinforming cells, or their precursors, at the site of demyelination.
Although such an approach can trigger functional recovery and
restore axonal conduction, the limited migration of lineagerestricted, myelin-forming cells through the brain parenchyma
highlights the beneficial effect of transplantation to the site of the
injury. This raises critical issues regarding the therapeutic use of
focal cell transplantation to treat diseases in which multifocal
demyelination is the main pathological feature. Such issues are
compounded by the poor expansion capacity of myelin-forming
cells in culture, which greatly limits their availability and further
hampers their prospective application in clinical settings”
(Pluchino et al., 2003, p. 688).
Example
Paragraph
 Multiple sclerosis damages the myelin sheaths which cover the
axons of the central nervous system (CNS). These myelin sheaths
help transmit information between the nervous system and the
body, and the deterioration of these sheaths can cause paralysis,
blindness, loss of sensation, etc. Multiple sclerosis and related
disorders belong within the category of auto-immune diseases,
where the cells of the patient destroy his/her own tissues. While
researchers have shown how transplanting myelin-forming cells
into subjects with multiple sclerosis improves their symptoms,
transplanted cells seldom spread from their original sites. This
study will therefore consider the therapeutic limitations of cell
transplants for cases of multiple sclerosis where demyelination
happens across multiple sites. It will also explain how the slow
growth of artificial cultures of myelin-forming cells reduces the
clinical usefulness of transplantation.