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Chapter 7 4th Edition Memory Copyright 2004 Prentice Hall 7-1 Initial Studies • Hermann Ebbinghaus conducted the pioneering research on memory in the late 1800s. • Ebbinghaus devised nonsense syllables, which he believed had no meaning attached to them, to study how associations between stimuli are formed. Copyright 2004 Prentice Hall 7-2 Initial Studies • Ebbinghaus devised nonsense syllables, which he believed had no meaning attached to them, to study how associations between stimuli are formed. Copyright 2004 Prentice Hall 7-3 Initial Studies • Through the use of serial learning, Ebbinghaus determined that much of what we learn is forgotten very shortly after a learning session. • Other methods include paired-associate learning and free recall. Copyright 2004 Prentice Hall 7-4 Initial Studies • These basic methods were developed and expanded by incorporating additional tasks, such as the recognition test and the relearning test • The savings score is produced by the relearning method. Copyright 2004 Prentice Hall 7-5 Traditional Models of Memory • Some investigators have drawn a parallel between the computer and human memory. Copyright 2004 Prentice Hall 7-6 Traditional Models of Memory • Computers and human memory have (a) an input or encoding stage, (b) a storage process, and (c) a retrieval process. Copyright 2004 Prentice Hall 7-7 Traditional Models of Memory • The stages-of-memory model of memory proposes that memories can be processed in different ways. • There are three types of memory: sensory, short-term, and long-term. Copyright 2004 Prentice Hall 7-8 Traditional Models of Memory • Sensory memory is a very brief (lasting one-half to 1 second) memory for a large array of stimuli. • Short-term memory (STM) is more limited in capacity than sensory memory but lasts longer (10 to 20 seconds). • Working memory is the second stage of shortterm memory, during which attention and conscious effort are brought to bear on material. Copyright 2004 Prentice Hall 7-9 Traditional Models of Memory • With practice or rehearsal, memories may persist even longer and ultimately be transferred to more permanent storage in long-term memory (LTM). Copyright 2004 Prentice Hall 7-10 Traditional Models of Memory • Memories may not be retrievable from LTM because they have faded or because of interference by other memories. • Proactive Interference occurs when old material interferes with the retrieval of material learned more recently. • Retroactive interference occurs when recently learned material interferes with the retrieval of material learned earlier. Copyright 2004 Prentice Hall 7-11 Traditional Models of Memory Copyright 2004 Prentice Hall 7-12 Other Approaches • Craik and Lockhart proposed only one type of memory. • The level of processing may determine the permanence of the storage of this memory. Copyright 2004 Prentice Hall 7-13 Other Approaches • Other researchers have proposed that there is more than one type of long-term memory. • Four types have been identified: procedural, semantic, episodic, and priming or implicit memory. • Each serves to store a different kind of information. Copyright 2004 Prentice Hall 7-14 Other Approaches • The tip-of-the-tongue (TOT) phenomenon has been used to study the network of semantic memories • The study of flashbulb memories has provided information about episodic memory. Copyright 2004 Prentice Hall 7-15 Other Approaches • Research on the retrieval of memories has shown that we scan both STM and LTM to locate an item we wish to recall. Copyright 2004 Prentice Hall 7-16 Other Approaches • Encoding specificity has a great deal to do with the ease with which a memory is retrieved. • If the cues that were present when a memory was encoded or stored are not present during retrieval, it is difficult to retrieve that memory. Copyright 2004 Prentice Hall 7-17 Other Approaches • Encoding specificity appears to be at work in state dependent learning, which states that we recall information Copyright 2004 Prentice Hall 7-18 Other Approaches • It has been suggested that memories of childhood sexual abuse may be repressed and recalled during adulthood. • Many of these repressed memories appear to have been induced during therapy sessions by suggestions made by the therapist. Copyright 2004 Prentice Hall 7-19 Other Approaches • The number of sessions, distribution of practice, meaningfulness of items, similarity of items, and serial position of items influence human learning. Copyright 2004 Prentice Hall 7-20 Other Approaches • Our memory can be improved by using a mnemonic device such as imagery. • The method of loci and the peg-word technique are two popular mnemonic devices. Copyright 2004 Prentice Hall 7-21 Other Approaches • Grouping and coding are two other techniques that can be used as memory aids. • Acronyms, words formed by the first letter(s) of the items to be remembered, and acrostics, a verse or saying in which the first letter(s) of each word stands for a bit of information, are two popular forms of coding. Copyright 2004 Prentice Hall 7-22 The Physiological Basis of Learning and Memory • Physical trauma may result in a loss of memory known as amnesia. • Anterograde amnesia occurs when new information cannot be stored, although old memories remain intact. • Anterograde amnesia can result from damage to the hippocampus. Copyright 2004 Prentice Hall 7-23 The Physiological Basis of Learning and Memory • Retrograde amnesia occurs when memories for events that happened before the traumatic event are lost. • Retrograde amnesia may occur when memories are not allowed to consolidate or set. Copyright 2004 Prentice Hall 7-24