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Timeline
1309: Clement V moves the papacy
from Rome to Avignon.
1341: Petrarch is named Poet
Laureate of Rome. This is cited as the
beginning of the Renaissance.
1346-53: The Black Death sweeps
across Europe.
1401: Ghiberti wins competition to
design baptistery doors of the
Cathedral of Santa Maria del Fiore in
Florence
1420: Work begins on Brunelleschi‘s
dome for the Cathedral of Santa
Maria del Fiore. The Papacy returns
to Rome from France.
c1434-94: The Medici family become
de facto rulers of Florence.
1450/55: Johannes Gutenberg
invents the printing press, and prints
the Gutenberg Bible.
1453: The fall of Constantinople and
the end of the Byzantine empire.
1470: The first Italian printing press is
set up in Venice.
1477: Ptolemy's map of the world is
printed in Bologna.
1494: King of France Charles VIII,
travels with his army through the
Alps and captures Naples. He is
forced out the following year.
1495: Leonardo da Vinci begins
painting The Last Supper in the
refectory of the Convent of Santa
Maria delle Grazie, Milan.
1508: Michelangelo begins painting
the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel in the
Vatican.
1515: King of France, Francis I, wins a
dramatic battle at Marignano and
captures Milan.
1517: Martin Luther posts his 95
Theses on the door of the Wittenberg
church. This is cited as the beginning
of the Reformation.
1527: The Sack of Rome by Charles
V of Spain.
Resources for Teachers, Senior Cycle & Early Undergraduate Students
In F cus
THE ITALIAN RENAISSANCE:
Origins, Context and Works from the
National Gallery of Ireland (NGI)
What was the Renaissance?
The word Renaissance is a French word meaning
“rebirth”. It refers to a period in history between the
end of the 14th century and the beginning of the 17th
century in Europe. These years saw an astonishing
level of creativity in drawing, sculpture, fine art
painting and architecture. The Italian Renaissance
began in earnest in Florence, but quickly spread to
other parts of Italy, such as Rome, Venice and Milan.
The Renaissance emerged in other parts of Europe too
such as France, Belgium, the Netherlands and Britain.
The Black Death (or the Bubonic
Plague) had social and economic
implications. There was a large
reduction in Europe’s population.
This led to change in the
availability of land and resources.
Peasants’ wages increased as
there were fewer workers.
When the plague began to abate, a
new class of bankers and merchants
rose to power. An example of this is
the Medici Family in Florence, who
used their new-found power and
wealth to become patrons of the arts.
The influence of geometry and
mathematics on the arts
placed an emphasis on correct
proportion and perspective
which changed approaches in
drawing, painting, sculpture
and architecture.
Why did the Italian
Renaissance happen?
The study of Greek and
Roman history by medieval
scholars, such as Petrarch,
led to the popularity of
Humanist thinking, and
sparked a more critical
approach to the arts.
The invention of the printing
press resulted in the widespread availability of texts, such
as the Bible and classical
writings. New ideas, theories
and images of artworks also
became more readily available.
What was life like during the Italian Renaissance?
Politics: Following the establishment of a commune in 1115,
Florence considered itself a republic. It was ruled by a council,
known as the signoria. This was made up of guild members who
were elected every two months. Due to the dependence on the
silk and wool trade in Florence, the textile guilds held the most
power. However, there was a shift during the 15th Century;
bankers and merchants gained more power and in Florence the
Medici family, who were bankers to the papacy in Rome, took
control of the city. Due to Florence’s wealth and banking
strength, the Florentine Florin became the standard coinage
around Europe.
Vincenzo di Biagio Catena and unknown artist,
Portrait of two Venetian Gentlemen, c1510. NGI.100
Perugino, Lamentation over the Dead Christ, c1495. NGI.942
Philosophy/Religion: The Renaissance saw a renewed
study of Greek and Roman texts. Classical works by
Aristotle, Plato and Ptolemy became cornerstones for
Renaissance philosophers. Humanist philosophy gained
popularity, and inspired new critical approaches to the
Arts and Sciences. Key Renaissance figures include the
poet Petrarch, the philosopher and scholar Marsilio
Ficino, and the historian Leonardo Bruni. The
Renaissance was also a period of religious turmoil, with
incidents such as the Western Schism (1378-1417), in
which three men simultaneously claimed to be the
Pope, and the Fifth Council of the Lateran (1511), as
well as continual accusations of corruption and
nepotism. In 1517, Martin Luther published his 95
Theses which challenged the authority of the Church
and ultimately led to the Reformation.
Architecture: Italian architecture changed
considerably over the course of the Renaissance,
from the Gothic emphasis on pointed arches, ribbed
vaults and flying buttresses to a more simple,
geometric and harmonious style. In Florence,
building design was influenced by classical antiquity
mixed with local traditions. Columns, pilasters, lintels
and domes became common. Filippo Brunelleschi is
credited for pioneering this new approach to
architectural design through his work on Florence
Cathedral. Other notable architects include Leon
Battista Alberti and Donato Bramante.
Brunelleschi, Florence Cathedral Dome (detail), 1436.
First page of an early printed edition of Dante's Divine Comedy.
Cover page of 1550 edition of Machiavelli's The Prince.
Literature: During the 13th century,
writers began to write in their native
language of Italian rather than in Latin
or French. New styles of poetry and
prose were developed, with a focus on
platonic love and epic narratives. The
invention of the commercial printing
press by the German printer and goldsmith Johannes Gutenberg meant that
works were more widely circulated and
could be mass-produced. Humorous and
political works gained popularity.
Important works include Dante’s
epic poem, the Divine Comedy c1310,
and Niccolò Machiavelli’s treatise The
Prince, 1513.
Jacopo Vignali, Saint Cecilia, c1600. NGI.183
Filippino Lippi, Portrait of a Musician, c1480. NGI.470
Music: Between 1450 and 1600, music was
largely composed for use by the Church,
however over the course of the 15th
century, music for secular purposes began
to gain popularity. Common instruments
included the viola, the lute, the recorder
and the harpsichord. Composers came from
Belgium and the Netherlands to Italy
during the 15th and 16th century, and
brought many new techniques and musical
styles with them, such as polyphonic
melodies and madrigals. Famous Italian
composers include Giovanni Pierluigi da
Palestrina, Costanzo Festa and Francesco
da Milano.
Giovanni Battista Moroni, Portrait of a Gentleman and his two
Children, c1570. NGI.105.
Luca Signorelli, Christ in the House of Simon the Pharisee, 1498.
NGI.266
Lifestyle: Public events and celebrations were
one of the few occasions where different classes
would mix freely. Popular sporting events
included jousting or bull-fighting, while board
games like chess were widely played. Typical
occupations for men during the Renaissance
were farming, weaving, banking and working as
a goldsmith. Noble women tended to be wives
or could enter a convent, while women of lower
ranks could work as seamstresses, silk weavers
and midwives. At the start of the century,
children were treated like small adults, and the
majority of children were expected to work as
soon as they were able. Only wealthy children,
and usually boys, attended school, where they
studied grammar and mathematics.
Food: The use of spices and sugars meant
medieval flavours and techniques
developed during the Renaissance in Italy.
Fruit was often served as a starter. Meat,
poultry and fish became popular main
courses. Pasta dishes such as macaroni and
vermicelli became staples of Italian cuisine.
Food was often flavoured with olive oil or
citrus fruits. The nobility and upper classes
would feast on a variety of foods such as
soups, seafood and steaks. Those of a lower rank would usually dine on
simple pasta dishes and only ate meat
occasionally.
Titian and Studio, The Supper at Emmaus, c1545. NGI.84
Lavinia Fontana, The Visit of the Queen of Sheba to King Solomon. C1600 NGI.76.
Attributed to Giovanni Antonio Pordenone, Portrait of a Gentleman, c1515. NGI.866.
Clothes: What you wore was defined by your class
and place in society. Women’s clothing consisted
of ornate sleeves and sweeping gowns with high
waists. Hats were mandatory in public, with
wealthier men often wearing a feather in their cap,
while women sometimes wore a veil. Florence’s
trade empire revolved largely around the
production of wool, which meant it was the most
common material used for clothes. However, with
the growing wealth in Florence, more fabrics
became available such as silk and velvet. These
began to be produced in Italy, particularly in
Florence, Venice and Genoa.
Visual Art: Renaissance art in Italy saw the impressive development of new styles, techniques and genres. Paintings
from this period reveal a greater interest in natural scenes, figures, and expressive gestures. Perspective and the
illusion of depth was perfected through the use of foreshortening. There was also an increase in the application of
sfumato and chiaroscuro techniques. Compositions became more complex with the use of pyramidal layouts. Some
Renaissance works also tended to be monumental in style. Artists began to use slow drying oil paint instead of egg
tempera which assisted in creating the illusion of realism in paintings.
Italian Renaissance artworks can be divided into four key phases:
c1350-1400: Late Gothic/Byzantine
This period is characterised by very decorative and ornate works. They were often
made for religious purposes. Figures appeared quite flat and works were painted in
egg tempera and embellished with gold leaf.
Key artists:
Cimabue, Duccio, Giotto Di Bondone
Key works:
Giotto, The Arena Chapel frescoes, Padua, c1303.
Cimabue, Maestà, Uffizi Gallery, Florence, 1280–85.
From the NGI Collection: Silvestro dei Gherarducci, The Assumption of Saint Mary
Magdalene, (detail) 1380s. NGI 841
c1400-1470: Early Renaissance
The Early Renaissance saw figures becoming more realistic and three-dimensional in
appearance. Backgrounds also became more detailed with the inclusion of classical
style architectural settings, which demonstrated a new investigation into perspective.
Key artists:
Masaccio, Fra Angelico, Paolo Uccello.
Key works:
Masaccio, The Holy Trinity, Santa Maria Novella, Florence, c1425.
Fra Angelico, The Annunciation, Prado, Madrid, 1438-45.
From the NGI Collection: Paolo Uccello, Virgin and Child, c1435-40. NGI.603
c1470-1530: High Renaissance
This period saw an explosion of creativity. Compositions were balanced and displayed
a new level of perfection. Subject matter moved beyond religious topics with
mythological and non-secular themes featuring in artworks. Other genres such as
portraiture were developed. Use of colour became more sophisticated, and artists
perfected the application of oil paint to create increasingly realistic and enticing
works.
Key artists:
Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo, Raphael, Titian.
Key works:
Leonardo da Vinci, Mona Lisa, The Louvre, Paris, c1505.
Michelangelo, The Sistine Chapel Ceiling, The Vatican, 1508-12.
Raphael, The School of Athens, The Vatican, 1509.
From the NGI Collection: Titian, Ecce Homo, c1558. NGI.75
c1530-1600: Mannerism
Mannerism was a reaction to the perfection of the High Renaissance, and a new
means for artists to express their creativity. It can be identified by its stylised
compositions and elongated forms. Key factors in Mannerist works include unusual
settings, the use of cooler colours and more complex narratives.
Key artists:
Parmigianino, Tintoretto, Bronzino.
Key works:
Parmigianino, Madonna with the Long Neck, Uffizi Gallery, Florence, 1534-40.
Tintoretto, The Miracle of the Slave, Gallerie dell'Accademia, Venice, 1592-24.
From the NGI Collection: Agnolo Bronzino, Saint John the Baptist in the Wilderness,
c1580. NGI.1088
Examples of Renaissance works at the National Gallery of Ireland
Fra Angelico:
Saints Cosmas and Damian and their Brothers
Surviving the Stake, c1439-42. NGI.242
Tempera on wood panel.
Fra Angelico was one of the greatest early Renaissance
painters in Florence. In 1407 he entered the Dominican
monastery of Fiesole, and began his artistic career as a
book illustrator. His talent was recognised very quickly,
and soon he was receiving commissions for frescoes
and altarpieces.
This painting is a good example of his use of colour, and
his knowledge of perspective. This small panel was part
of the predella (lower register) of Fra Angelico's most
important altarpiece in the San Marco cathedral in
Florence. It was commissioned by Cosimo de' Medici.
The panel depicts the attempted execution of Cosmas
and Damian, two physician brothers who lived during
the third century. They and their brothers were
Christian, and would not renounce their faith during
pagan persecutions. Lycias, the Roman Consul,
submitted them to brutal tortures before beheading
them.
Francesco Granacci:
Rest on the Flight into Egypt with the
Infant Saint John the Baptist, c1494. NGI.98
Tempera and oil on wood panel.
A pupil of Domenico Ghirlandaio, Francesco Granacci was
an apprentice in Ghirlandaio's workshop in Florence at the
same time as Michelangelo. The pair were lifelong
friends, and Granacci was initially involved in the transfer
of Michelangelo’s cartoons onto the ceiling of the Sistine
Chapel. He returned to Florence where he remained for
the rest of his life.
There is evidence of Michelangelo’s influence on Granacci
in this painting. The grouping of the three figures is almost
sculptural, and similar in style to many of Michelangelo’s
works. However, there are also elements that reflect the
teachings of Ghirlandaio, such as the gentle nature of the
Virgin’s face, and the colourful background. This painting
was copied by a number of artists over the years.
The painting depicts a scene taken from the Gospel of
Matthew, which depicts the Holy Family fleeing to Egypt
to escape King Herod. This is a common story depicted in
Renaissance art, and the outdoor setting led to further
explorations of the genre of landscape painting.
Titian:
Ecce Homo, 1558-1560. NGI.75
Oil on canvas.
Titian was a famous High Renaissance Venetian painter.
He trained alongside the artist Giorgione in the Bellini
studio. The early death of Giorgione resulted in Titian
becoming the leading artist in Venice. He had numerous
patrons both from and outside of Venice, such as Pope
Paul III and the Emperors Charles V and Philip II.
This painting’s title Ecce Homo means “Behold the man”
and was a common subject in religious painting. It
depicts the moment where Jesus, having been
flagellated and ridiculed, is presented by Pontius Pilate
to the crowd.
Titian portrays Christ as powerless and in tears, evoking
sympathy and empathy from the viewer. The painting is
executed with quick strokes of paint. The work also
includes a pentimento, or alteration, where Titian has
changed the position of the sceptre. Its original position
is still visible.
Agnolo Bronzino:
Saint John the Baptist in the Wilderness, late 1580s.
NGI.1088
Oil on wood panel.
Agnolo di Cosimo, better know as Agnolo Bronzino, was a
pupil of Pontormo, who would remain a lifelong
collaborator. He was a founding member of the Florentine
Accademia delle Arti del Disegno in 1563. He achieved
fame and recognition under the patronage of the Medici
family, and for most of his career was the official court
painter of the Duke and his court. He is known for his
portraits of the Florentine elite, but also for the highly
idealised allegorical works, which he preferred to paint.
This work is a good example of Bronzino’s use of cool
colours. The figure of John the Baptist is depicted in a
sharp inundating light, that gives the painting an intense
beauty. There is an influence of Michelangelo in the
elongated classical form of the figure. Bronzino‘s
depiction of John the Baptist also shows his study of
female nudes.
This is a typical Mannerist work in that it is difficult to
interpret. If the cross was not included in the painting,
then it would be difficult to decipher who the figure
represents.
Glossary of Terms
Patronage—
Chiaroscuro—
The sponsorship of artists and the commissioning of Contrasting effects of light and shade in a work of art. It
works by wealthy and powerful people.
is typically associated with artists such as Caravaggio.
Guilds—
Fresco—
An organisation of people with similar professions, with Fresco is a technique of mural painting where paint is
the purpose of protecting its members and
applied to freshly-laid wet plaster on a wall.
maintaining standards within the professional field.
Predella—
Humanist Philosophy—
The painting or sculpture located along the frame at the
A type of philosophy that emphasises the value of
bottom of an altarpiece.
human beings, both individually and collectively. It
generally refers to a favouring of critical and logical Cartoons—
thinking over established doctrine or faith.
A preparatory or first drawing for a piece of art, such as
a painting or sculpture.
Reformation—
A divide within Western Christianity that began in 1517. Pentimento—
From the Italian word meaning ‘to repent’ or ‘change of
Antiquity—
mind’. It is an alteration made to a painting. It is where
The classical civilisations of Ancient Greece and Rome, an artist changes their mind while working on the
particularly before the Middle Ages.
painting, and goes over their original design.
Lintels—
A structural horizontal block that is placed over an
entrance to bear the load above it.
Pilasters—
A flattened column used as a wall decoration.
Allegorical—
Comes from allegory, which is a literary device used to
illustrate complex ideas and concepts through the use of
symbolic imagery so all audiences can understand them.
Find Out More . . .
Epic Poem—
The National Museum of Ireland:
A long poem typically about a significant event, and A number of Renaissance artefacts are located at the
often featuring a hero.
National Museum of Ireland Decorative Arts and
History at Collins Barracks.
Treatise—
http://www.museum.ie/en/intro/the-collections.aspx
A formal written work, a little longer than an essay, that
investigates and explores a particular subject in detail.
The National Library of Ireland:
Publications and other resources are available on the
Secular—
Renaissance, as well as works from the period itself.
Not connected with religious or spiritual matters.
http://catalogue.nli.ie/
Polyphonic—
A piece of music consisting of two or more lines of
independent melody performed at the same time.
The Crawford Art Gallery:
Late Renaissance paintings and Canova casts of GrecoRoman sculptures are in the collection
http://www.crawfordartgallery.ie/permanentcollectiona
bout.html
Foreshortening—
A method of creating the illusion of depth within a
picture. The artist recreates the distorted appearance of The Chester Beatty Library:
an object when it is viewed from an unusual angle.
Byzantine and Renaissance manuscripts are part of the
collection at the Chester Beatty Library.
Sfumato—
http://www.cbl.ie/Collections/Introduction.aspx
Derived from the Italian "sfumare" meaning “to tone
down” or “to evaporate like smoke”. Sfumato is a smoky The Arts in Education Portal:
blending of colours and tones. It is typically associated For further general information on National arts and
with artists such as Leonardo da Vinci.
education practices www.artsineducation.ie
Devised by Sinéad K. Rice, NGI Education Officer - Teachers, Schools and Youth
Produced by Sinéad K. Rice and Julie Daunt. © National Gallery of Ireland, 2015.