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Anthropological Research
Theories, Questions, Scales,
Data, and Models
Anthropological Research
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Research begins with an idea or
question about something:
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From the literature
Derived from a theory or model
From a discovery of a pattern in the
data
The purpose of research is to
evaluate the support for that idea
Theories in Anthropology
• Linked sets of statements about how
people behave and why, e.g.
– Zipf’s Law of the Minimum – people
minimize their effort
– Cultural Ecology – people behave in
ways that harmonize with their
environment
– Behavioral Ecology – natural selection
shapes our behavior
Kinds of Theories in
Anthropology
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Biology (population genetics)
Environment/Ecology (exogenous)
Demography (endogenous)
Culture (innovation, diffusion,
migration, interaction, stratification)
• Psychology (individual needs/wants/
strategic action)
Who Questions
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Who has power?
Who has wealth?
Who is related to whom?
Who were the first agriculturalists?
Who were the first Americans/
Australians?
What Questions
• What do people call their kin?
• What are the rules for dividing
shares?
• What kind of houses do they build?
• What was this artifact used for?
• What disturbances have altered the
site?
When Questions
• When did the first humans emerge?
• When did agriculture begin?
• When did Western influences
become important?
• When was the New World colonized?
Where Questions
• Where do people live, work, play?
• Where are various activities
performed?
• Where are people buried?
Why Questions
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Why do people believe in . . . ?
Why do people do . . . ?
Why was agriculture invented?
Why are pots decorated?
Why did states emerge?
How Questions
• How was Australia colonized?
• How did the Indo European
language spread?
• How did human culture emerge?
• How do people classify . . .?
• How does globalization affect local
culture?
Scale
• Global view – big picture processes
• Temporal view – periods, phases
• Regional view – social networks,
territories
• Local view – neighborhood
• Site/Village view – structure, context
• Individual view – life history, types
Global View
• Climate, soils, topography,
ecological zones, isolation, ocean
currents
• Data on cultures, nations –
demography, economy, ideology
• Broad patterns between global
characteristics and culture
Temporal View
• Archaeological time/space charts
spanning millennia
• Historical timelines spanning
centuries
• Generational data
• Life history data
Regional View
• Environmental variability at regional
level – rivers, mountains, vegetation,
ecological communities
• Locations of sites/villages
• Characteristics of sites/villages
Site/Village View
• Site neighborhood
• Location of structures, features,
artifact clusters
• Household composition
• Variability
Household View
• Location (within village/site)
• Pattern of structures, features, and
activity areas
• Comparison with other households
Individual View
• Physiology, genetic makeup,
skeletal characteristics
• Life history
• Statuses and roles
• Decision making
• Belief system
Individual (Artifact) View
• Group (classification)
• Composition
• Properties – size, shape, color,
quality, wear, breakage, material,
Style vs. Function
Models
• A model uses a theory to develop
expectations about what kinds of
patterns we will find in the data
• Models use theories and operational
arguments to tell us what is
important in the data
• Statistics can help evaluate the fit
between model and data
Evaluation
• Must check reasoning from theory to
model
• Must check operational arguments
and proxy measures
• Must check data gathering process
• Must check role of formation
processes
Quantitative Approaches
• Estimation and Confirmation
– Sampling
– Parametric vs. Non-parametric
– Response (Dependent) vs. Explanatory
(Independent) variables (causal
models)
• Descriptive
– Data Reduction, Pattern Recognition
(Exploratory Data Analysis)
Kinds of Data
• Scales of measurement – nominal,
ordinal, interval, ratio (dichotomy)
• Discrete vs. Continuous
• Composition/Assemblage
(Percentages)