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Evolutionary Mechanisms
Genetic Equilibrium Vs. Evolution
 In
genetic terms, evolution is any
change in the relative frequency of
alleles in a population.
 The situation when the allele
frequencies remain the same is called
genetic equilibrium.
 If the frequencies do not change, the
population will not evolve.
Maintaining Genetic Equilibrium
 If
there are no changes to DNA, and the allele
frequency stays the same, the population is at
genetic equilibrium which means no evolution
has occurred.
No C alleles allowed!
 This
can be measured by looking
at the Gene Pool of a population.
Maintaining a Species
• In order to maintain a species (no new alleles in gene
pool), certain criteria must be met.
• There must be:
– A large population
– No change in DNA
– No natural selection
– No immigration or emigration
– Random mating
• These 5 conditions are referred to as the
Hardy-Weinberg Principle.
• If the five Hardy Weinberg conditions
are MET, then the population is in
equilibrium (not changing)
• If any ONE of them is affected, then
the population will evolve
Population Size Effects



In small populations, there are less options for mating,
therefore any evolutionary changes occur more rapidly
In large populations there are more alleles available, so
one change does not make a big difference to the
population
These changes are due solely to chance factors. The
smaller the population, the more susceptible it is to such
random changes and loss in genetic variation.
If evolution DOES occur, it
may be through:
1.
Genetic drift
– Bottleneck Effect
– Founder Effect
2.
3.
4.
Gene Flow
Mutations
Genetic Recombination
Genetic Drift
 Genetic
Drift is the random change in
allele frequencies that occurs in small
populations.
 Some individuals, just by chance, leave
behind a few more descendents than
others.
 This is different than natural selection
because it is not survival of the fittest
 Genetic
Genetic Drift
drift can cause populations to
lose genetic variation and it does not
usually create new adaptations.
 There are two types of genetic drift:
– Bottleneck Effect
– Founder Effect
The Bottleneck Effect



Environmental events may reduce
population sizes dramatically ex:
earthquakes, floods, fires, and
over hunting by humans
Those that survive the disaster
may not accurately represent the
original population
Alleles may be overrepresented
among survivors, some may be
eliminated completely.
The Founder Effect




Occasionally a small group of individuals within a
population may migrate and become isolated from
the original population.
This smaller group is the ‘founding’ population
The result for this new founding population is often
high frequencies of specific genetic traits
inherited from the founding ancestor
Certain alleles may go missing all together as a
consequence, resulting in a loss of genetic diversity.
The Founder Effect

The
Mainland
Population
Island
The Founder Effect
The
Mainland
A few
individuals
colonize a
new isolated
area
The Founder Effect
There may be a
higher frequency of
one allele in the
founder population
just by chance
This allele did not have
been very common in the
original population
The Founder Effect
Island
The island
population grows
…after a few generations
One allele may be
lost completely if
individuals fail to
leave offspring
carrying it.
Island
…after a few generations
Mutations
may occur
creating
new
alleles
Island
…after a few more generations
The new allele
becomes more
common
Island
The 2 populations now look
very different!
The
Mainland
Island
The Fugates of Kentucky



Stemming from one French
immigrant, Martin Fugate, who
moved to Kentucky in 1820, a gene
for methemoglobinemia was introduced.
The Fugates and their descendents suffer from a
rare hereditary blood disorder where there is
excessive methemoglobin in the blood.
Because their circulating blood is less oxygenated,
they appear various shades of blue, depending on
how seriously they are affected.
Maria Concepcion Soto
•
•
•
•
In the Lake Maracaibo region of northwest Venezuela, there is an
extraordinarily high frequency of a disorder known as
Huntington's disease.
All of the Lake Maracaibo region Huntington's disease victims trace
their ancestry to a woman named Maria Concepción Soto who moved into
the area in the 19th century. She had an unusually large number of
descendants and was therefore the "founder" of what is now a
population of about 20,000 people with a high risk of having this
unpleasant genetically inherited trait
Approximately 150 people in the area during the 1990's had
this rare fatal condition and many others were at high risk for
developing it.
NOTE: Huntington's disease is not unique to the Lake Maracaibo
region. It occurs throughout the world at relatively low rates. About
200,000 people in the United States (.07% of the population) have it.
Amish Example of Founder Effect
• Amish people of Lancaster County,
Pennsylvania have a high
incidence of Microcephaly.
• From 1960-2000, 61 babies were born (to 23
Amish families) that had this extremely rare
fatal genetic disorder.
• All of these families are descendants of a
single Amish couple nine generations ago.
Remember….
If evolution DOES occur, it
may be through:
1.
Genetic drift
– Bottleneck Effect
– Founder Effect
2.
3.
4.
Gene Flow
Mutations
Genetic Recombination
 Gene
Gene Flow
flow is when alleles are
transferred from one population to
another.
 This happens when
there is migration.
 If
alleles are carried to a population
where those alleles previously did not
exist, gene flow can be a very important
source of genetic variation.
Gene Flow

By moving alleles around, it can make distant
populations genetically similar to one another,
thus reducing the chance of speciation.
Example: The allele for brown coloration moves
from one population to another and eventually
both populations will have brown alleles.
Remember….
If evolution DOES occur, it
may be through:
1.
Genetic drift
– Bottleneck Effect
– Founder Effect
2.
3.
4.
Gene Flow
Mutations
Genetic Recombination
Mutations



Mutations are random changes in DNA.
Mutations can be beneficial, neutral, or harmful for
an organism, but mutations do not “try” to supply what
the organism “needs.”
To pass a mutation on to the next generation, it must
occur to a reproductive cell (gamete).
Remember….
If evolution DOES occur, it
may be through:
1.
Genetic drift
– Bottleneck Effect
– Founder Effect
2.
3.
4.
Gene Flow
Mutations
Genetic Recombination
Genetic Recombination
 Sexually
reproducing organisms can
create new combinations of alleles.
 Crossing-over
that occurs in meiosis can
recombine or “shuffle” alleles in sex
cells.
Genetic Recombination
 When
egg and sperm meet, the
offspring inherits a combination of
genes that is totally unique.
 Gametes carries versions of genes
from previous generations
plus any mutations that
occurred during meiosis
Effect of Genetic Recombination
Differences among individuals add to the
diversity and variation within the population.
 Diversity means that alleles are changing over
time, which means that evolution is occurring.

In Summary…
Changes to a population over time = EVOLUTION
No changes to a population = genetic equilibrium = NO
EVOLUTION
The four ways that changes CAN be made to a population
are explained above!