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Levels of Organization Molecule Cell Tissue Organ Organ system Organism Population Community Ecosystem Biosphere Molecules of Life Type Function Protein Identity Enyzme Hormone Energy Energy Storage Information Storage Carbohydrates Nucleic Acids Lipids Examples Membrane proteins Lipase Insulin Glucose Glycogen DNA RNA Energy Storage Fat Basic Metabolism of Life Photosynthesis Capturing of sunlight and carbon dioxide by plants to make sugar and complex carbohydrates Plants provide the energy for the rest of life Oxygen is a by-product of this process Respiration Releasing of chemical (ie. Sugar) energy by the chemical process of oxidation Carbon dioxide is released in this process Two Major Types of Cells Eukaryotic Cells Nucleus Chromosomes Mitochondria Golgi Bodies Endoplasmic Reticulum Examples include our body cells, amoeba, plant cells Prokaryotic Cells No nucleus, bare, circular DNA No organelles Very small (0.1 to 0.01 size of Eukaryotic cells Examples: bacteria (Tuberculosis) Four Types of Human Tissue Epithelial – coverings Connective – bind, support, insulate Muscle – smooth, cardiac and skeletal Nervous – detection, integration, action Infectious Disease Prion Virus Prokaryotic cells Example: Mycobacterium tuberculosis Protozoa DNA or RNA packages with protein Examples: colds, influenza, HIV Bacteria Misfolded proteins, ex. “Mad cow disease” Single-celled, eukaryotic invaders Examples: Malarial Plasmodium, Giardia Multicellular Parasites Examples: worms, fungi (ringworm, athlete’s foot) Integumentary System Muscular System Skeletal System Nervous System Endocrine System Circulatory System Lymphatic System Respiratory System Digestive System Urinary System Reproduction System Integumetary System Skin – complex system of tissues Epidermis and dermis Sweat glands – homiothermic balance Oil glands – lubrication for flexibility Sensory cells – Stimulus Hair and Nails – derived from epidermis Skeletal System Bones – calcium-rich, mineralized matrix Cells inside of bone Blood Immune system Bone Remodeling Childhood growth Reabsorbtion - osteoporosis Muscular System Three types of Muscle Tissue Cardiac – Heart Muscle Smooth – Intestines, arteries, etc. Skeletal – attached to bone (ligaments) and other muscles (tendons) All use a protein and ATP mechanism for contraction Nervous System Central Nervous System Brain – major integrator Spinal Cord – major conductive pathway Peripheral Nervous System Somatic (motor and sensory) Autonomic Sympathetic – “fight or flight” response, short term stress Parasympathetic – relaxation response Nervous System Nervous System Sensory Nerve cells Motor Nerve cells Mechanoreceptors, thermoreceptors, pain receptors, chemoreceptors, photoreceptors Connect from the CNS to the muscle May be under conscious control (via brain) or reflex control (spinal chord) Integrative Cells Interneurons and brain cells Nervous System The “limbic” system – connections in the midbrain, generates emotions and communicates to the … Hypothalamus – a structure of the brain that greatly influences the … Pituatary Glands – two structures (anterior and posterior) control much of the hormonal production of the body Endocrine System Hormonal control of the body Works with nervous system for short and long term control Major glands Hypothalamus/pituitary Thyroid Adrenals Pancreas (insulin and glucagon) Gonads (ovaries and testes) Cell, especially muscle, takes up glucose and uses it or converts it to glycogen. insulin Beta cells of pancreas release insulin into blood. Stimulus: Glucose is absorbed following a meal. Blood glucose levels increase to a set point; stimulus calling for glucagon diminishes. Liver converts glycogen to glucose, stops synthesizing glycogen. Liver converts glucose to glycogen, fats, proteins. Blood glucose levels decline to a set point; stimulus calling for insulin diminishes. Alpha cells of pancreas release glucagon into blood. glucagon Stimulus: Cells use or store glucose between meals. Digestive System Types of enzymes Proteinases – break down protein Lipases – break down lipids Carbohydrases (ex. Amylase) – break down carbohydrates Nucleases – break down nucleic acids Bile salts Emulsify lipids (fats and oils) Digestive System Mechanically prepares food for digestion Mouth with teeth – mechanical processing Stomach – mechanical processing, few enzymes Chemical degradation (digestion) Pancreatic enzymes (all classes) Bile salts from liver Some enzymes from saliva and stomach Digestive System - Nutrition Calories (for energy, mostly in the form of carbohydrates and lipids) Vitamins (cannot make by ourselves) Vitamin A – eyesight Vitamin C – various functions Vitamin D – bone growth Vitamin E – cell membrane Essential Amino Acids/ Fatty acids Minerals (Iron, Calcium, Zinc, etc.) Respiratory System Essential for Gas exchange Driven by partial pressure of gasses Removal by exhalation of carbon dioxide Absorption of oxygen Alveoli – high carbon dioxide, low oxygen Atmosphere – low carbon dioxide, high oxygen Major route of infection and trouble Circulatory System Heart – the double pump Arteries Systemic circulation Pulmonary circulation Conduit for blood moving away from heart Are musculated by smooth muscles Veins Conduit for blood moving to the heart Have one-way valves, rely on skeletal muscle Lymphatic System Bathes tissues in non-cellular fluid (lymph) Collects lymph and returns it to the circulatory system Plays an important role in the immune system Lymph glands – tonsils, etc. Thymus gland – home of T-cells Urinary System Maintain water and mineral balance Major structures Kidney Nephron is the functional structure filtration , absorption, and secretion Urinary Bladder Collects and holds urine for conscious elimination Defense – Non-specific Response Phagocytes Inflammation White blood cells (Leucocytes) respond quickly to injury or invasion Redness, swelling, warmth and pain Mast cells release histamine (responsible for many of the symptoms of inflammation) Allergies Inflammatory response to “normal” substances Defense – Immune Response Antibody Mediated Response Cell Mediated Response Triggered by exposure to antigen Effector B-cells produce antibodies Memory B-cells prepare for secondary response Effector Cytotoxic T cells result Both Types rely on Helper T-cells ANTIBODY-MEDIATED IMMUNE RESPONSE antigen antigen CELL-MEDIATED IMMUNE RESPONSE naïve helper T cell naïve B cell antigen-presenting cell naïve cytotoxic T cell effector B cell activated helper T cell antibody molecules effector cytotoxic T cell infected body cell Reproductive System Under hormonal control Both genders produce gametes by meiosis Ovaries – eggs are produced by a complex cycle controlled by hormones Testes – sperm are produced continuously Meiosis insures that the gametes have only half the number of adult chromosomes (haploid cells) Fertilization (egg and sperm fusion) restores the chromosome number to the adult count (diploid) Genetics DNA directs the synthesis of proteins DNA is found in the chromosomes Chromosomes are found in the nucleus Each somatic (body) cell has two copies of each chromosome Humans have 23 pairs of chromosomes Human somatic cells have 46 chromosomes Genetics Gametes have 1 copy of each chromosome Fertilization makes new combinations by fusing eggs and sperm Brand new genes come from mutations of old genes Some genes are beneficial, some are deleterious, most depend on the environment Sickle Cell Anemia Illustrates… New genes from old through mutation Direct relation between DNA and protein Relation between a changed protein and the many changes that it brings about Relation between a gene and the environment in which it is found Natural Selection in humans as it is disappearing in African-americans Evolutionary Theory and Biology The cornerstone of modern biology is evolutionary theory For example, it predicts and explains… Antibiotic resistance Genetic diseases and defects The fossil record Genetic engineering Tooth, back, hip and knee problems Etc. etc. Ecology Ecosystems have … A flow of energy through them (sunlight to heat) Cycling of nutrients (water, carbon cycle) Interacting organisms (food webs) Internal balance mechanisms that can break down, leading to ecosystem collapse Human Biology Although this class focused on humans and used the human body as an example of an integrated organism, we should remember that this is a human-centered view. Other views are possible, for example, … A chicken is just an egg’s way of producing more eggs.