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Music Appreciation
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Chapter 1
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1. Defining Melody
o More popularly called a tune
o Succession of single tones we perceive as a whole
 Can be compared to words in a sentence
o Can be described by distinct characteristics
 Range: the distance between the lowest and highest notes
 Contour: overall shape (descending, arch, wave, etc.)
o The distance between two notes in a melody is called an interval
 A melody that moves by small intervals is called conjunct
 A melody that moves by larger, disconnected intervals is described as disjunct
2. The Structure of Melody
o Phrase: unit of meaning within larger structure
o Cadence: the resting place where phrases are punctuated
 Singers and instrumentalists often breathe at cadences
 Cadences can be conclusive (complete) or inconclusive (incomplete)
o Rhyme scheme: musical phrases generally align with poetic phrases
 A high point in the melodic line (peak in intensity annd range) is the climax
o Countermelody: an added melody
 Can be secondary in importance to main melody
 Can be of equal importance to another melody
Chapter 2
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1. Music is propelled forward by rhythm
o Rhythm: length, or duration, of individual notes
o Beat: regular pulsation
o Accented beats are stronger, providing rhythmic pulse
o Meter: patterns into which rhythmic pulses are organized
o Measure: in notation, a unit of a fixed number of beats
2. Metrical patterns
o Musical time is organized in recurring patterns
 Typically 2, 3, or 4 beats grouped in a measure
o Downbeat: first accented beat in a measure
o Duple meter: two beats per measure—strong, weak
o Triple meter: three beats per measure—strong, weak, weak
o Quadruple mete: four beats per measure—strongest, weak, strong, weak
o Simple meters: each beat is subdivided into two or four
o Compound meters: each beat is subdivided into three
 Sextuple meter: six beats to the measure
 Strongest, weak, weak, strong, weak, weak
o Syncopation: deliberate disruption of regular patterns
 Accent is shifted to a weak beat or offbeat (in between the beats)
o Polyrhythm: simultaneous use of different rhythmic patterns
o Nonmeteric: music without a strong sense of beat or meter
Chapter 3
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1. Harmony describes the simultaneous events in music
o Harmony describes the notes that form chords and the progression from one chord to another.
o Chord: three or more tones sounded together
o Scale: collection of pitches arranged in ascending or descending order
 Syllables or numbers are assigned to the tones of the scale
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 Do-re-mi-fa-sol-la-ti-do or 1-2-3-4-5-6-7-8
o Octave: interval of do-do or 1-8
o Triad: a combination of three tones, built from a scale
2. The Organization of Harmony
o Tonic: first note of scale (do), assumes a greater importance
 Serves as a home base for other notes
o Tonality: principle of organization around the tonic
 Major tonality: perceived as bright
 Minor tonality: perceived as more subdued
3. Consonance and Dissonance
o Harmonies create the sense of tension and release
o Harmonic movement tends toward a goal, or resolution
 Dissonance: a combination of tones that seem unstable, unresolved
 Consonance: a stable and fulfilling combination of tones
Chapter 4
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1. The octave is the basic interval in music
o In Western music, the octave is divided into 12 equal semitones, referred to as half steps
o The major and minor scales are made up of 7 pitches drawn from the 12 semitones
o This system has been the basis of Western music for nearly 400 years
2. The Formation of Major and Minor Scales
o The 12 half steps of the octave constitute the chromatic scale
 Two half steps make one whole step
o On a keyboard the scale is made of the white and black keys in the octave
 White keys: C-D-E-F-G-A-B-C
 Black keys are in between the white keys
 The half step above a note is called a sharp (for example, F#)
 The half step below a note is called a flat (for example, Gb )
o Key: refers to a group of related tones that revolve around the tonic
 Tonic = central tone, or keynote
3. The Major Scale
o Scales are sequences of pitches
 C major scale created by playing only white keys from C to C
o Major is the most familiar scale pattern
 Syllables have been used to represent it: Do-re-mi-fa-sol-la-ti-do
o On a keyboard there are no black keys between E and F (mi–fa) or B and C (ti–do)
o Distance between E and F and between B and C is a half step
o The other white keys are a whole step apart
o All major scales follow the same pattern of whole and half steps, the mode
 Major mode: w-w-h-w-w-w-h
 The most important pitch in the scale is the tonic (do)
 For Western listeners, there is a natural pull towards do
 The pitch of active harmony is the fifth pitch, the dominant (sol)
 Joy to the World and Ah! vous dirai-je, maman (iMusic) are examples of music in a major mode
4. The Minor Scale
o The minor scale differs from the major mode in mood, coloring and mode
 Minor mode: w-h-w-w-h-w-w
 Haydn's Surprise Symphony, II (minor variation) and Bach's Toccata in D minor (iMusic) is an
example of music in the minor mode
5. Diatonic and Chromatic Scales
o Music that clearly uses the 7 tones of a scale is considered diatonic
o Introduction of tones foreign to a key weakens the tonic relationship
 Chromatic tones do not "belong" to the key
 Composers use chromaticism for color
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 Listen to Schumann's "In the lovely month of May" for an example of chromaticism (iMusic)
6. Other Scale Types
o Non-Western cultures divide the octave differently
 Pentatonic: five-note scale
 Tritonic: three-note scale
 Heptatonic: seven-note scale (different modes from major/minor)
 Microtonal scale: based on intervals smaller than half steps
 Similar to "blue note" inflection in jazz
o Some scales have different ascending and descending scalar patterns
 Indian ragas include different pitches in ascending and descending scales (iMusic example of Indian
scales: Bhimpalási)
o The musical system and tones chosen determine the character of the music
7. The Major-Minor System
o Active and Rest Chords
 Tonic triad: built on the first note of the scale
 Tonic triad represents a point of rest
 Dominant triad: built on the fifth scale step
 Most active triad, seeks to resolve to the tonic
 Subdominant triad: built on the fourth scale step
 Active triad, seeks to resolve to the tonic
o For a clear example of active and rest chords, listen to Battle Hymn of the Republic (iMusic)
8. The Key as a Form-Building Element
o The key is the prime factor for musical unity
o Contrast between keys in a piece creates interest
o Modulation: the process of changing from one key to another
 Modulations can be frequent or few, subtle or abrupt
 Mozart's Eine kleine Nachtmusik modulates in the first minute from G major to D Major (iMusic)
o Transposition: shifting all the tones of a piece to a new pitch level
 The pattern of whole and half steps does not change
Chapter 5
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1. Types of Texture
o Monophony: single-voiced (either sung or instrumental)
 No harmonic accompaniment or countermelodies
o Heterophony: multiple voices elaborating the same melody at the same time
 Often found in music with improvisation (music created on the spot)
o Polyphony: many-voiced texture based on counterpoint
 Counterpoint: one musical line set against another
 Often contains two or more melodies that are equal in importance
o Homophony: one main melodic line with accompanying harmony
o Homorhythm: all the voices or lines move in the same rhythm
2. Contrapuntal Devices
o Imitation: a melodic idea is presented in one voice and then restated in another
o Canon: imitation lasts the for the entire work
 Round: simplest of canons, each voice enters in succession with the same melody (Example: Row,
Row, Row Your Boat, iMusic)
3. Musical Texture and the Listener
o Each texture has its own distinct sound that can be heard with active listening skills
o Understanding texture takes active listening.
Chapter 6
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1. Structure and Design in Music
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o Form organizes the music
o Repetition and contrast: unity and variety in music
o Strophic form: a vocal form in which the same music is repeated for each line of text
o Variation: some aspects of music are altered but original is still recognizable
o Improvisation: pieces created spontaneously in performance, not precomposed
2. Two-Part and Three-Part Form
o Binary Form: two-part form based on a statement and departure, labeled A-B
o Ternary Form: three-part form based upon a statement, departure, and return to statement, labeled A-B-A
3. The Building Blocks of Form
o Theme: a melodic idea used as a building block in music
 Thematic development is process of expanding a theme
o Sequence: repeating a melody at a higher or lower pitch level
o Motive: the smallest fragment of a theme that is still a melodic unit
o Call-and-response, or responsorial music, features a soloist, then a group response
o Ostinato: repetition of a musical pattern (melodic, rhythmic, harmonic)
o Movement: complete section of a larger work (symphony, sonata, etc.)
Chapter 7
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1. The Pace of Music
o Tempo: speed of the music
 Tempo markings: terms to describe tempo (typically Italian)
 Allegro (fast)
 Moderato (moderate)
 Adagio (quite slow)
 Accelerando (speeding up the pace)Ritardando (slowing down the pace)
2. Loudness and Softness
o Dynamics: the relative volume of the music
 Italian terms to describe musical volume:
 forte (loud)
 mezzo forte (moderately loud)
 mezzo piano (moderately soft)
 piano (soft)
 Moving from one dynamic to another:
 crescendo (growing louder)
 decrescendo or diminuendo (growing softer)
3. Tempo and Dynamics as Elements of Musical Expression
o Composers and performers use tempo and dynamics to shape expressive content of the music
o Interpretation: performers and conductors interpret expressive intent
Chapter 8
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1. Musical Timbre
o Musical sound is produced by changing or singing vocally or playing an instrument
o Voices and instruments have pitch and dynamic ranges
o Musical timbre: tone color
2. The Voice as Instrument
o All cultures have some form of vocal music
o The sound of each voice is unique
o Vocal ranges (highest to lowest)
 Women:
 soprano
 mezzo-soprano
 alto
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Men:
 tenor
 baritone
 bass
o Vibrato: the throbbing effect singers can produce in the voice
3. The World of Musical Instruments
o World music system of categorizing instruments
 Aerophones: produce sound by using air as primary vibrating means
 Chordophones: produce sound from a vibrating string
 Idiophones: produce sound from the substance of the instrument itself
 Membranophones: produce sound by vibration of tightly stretched membranes
Chapter 9
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1. String Instruments (chordophones)
o Bowed string instruments each have four strings and are sounded by drawing a bow across the strings with
the right hand.
o Violin: smallest and highest-pitched member of the family
o Viola: somewhat larger than the violin and pitched lower
o Violoncello: primarily known as the cello; lower in range than the viola
o Double bass: the lowest-pitched and largest string instrument
o Special effects of the bowed string family:
 Legato: playing smoothly, connecting the notes
 Staccato: notes are played short and detached
 Pizzicato: strings are plucked with the fingers rather than bowed
 Vibrato: throbbing effect to resemble voice
 Glissando: finger of left hand slides on string and sounds all pitches on string
 Tremolo: rapid repetition of a tone with bow movement
 Trill: rapid alternation between a tone and the one adjacent to it
 Double-stopping: playing two strings simultaneously
 Triple- or quadruple-stopping: playing three or four strings together
 Harmonics: tones in a very high register created by lightly touching the string at specific points
o Harp: one of the oldest instruments
 Pitch is changed by use of pedals
 Arpeggio: sounding chord tones one after another; a broken chord (used by many instruments,
originally named for the harp, arpa)
o Guitar: may have originated in the Middle East
 Acoustic guitar is made of wood, has a fretted fingerboard and six nylon or steel strings
 Electric guitar is electronically amplified and is capable of specialized techniques
2. Woodwind Instruments (Aerophones)
o Formerly made of wood; modern instruments not always made of wood
o Flute: soprano voice of woodwind family, made of silver alloy, held horizontally, played by blowing
across a mouth hole
 Piccolo (little flute): highest pitched instrument in orchestra
o Oboe: double-reed instrument sounded by blowing directly into the reed; held vertically
o English horn: alto oboe, body ends in pear-shaped bell
o Clarinet: single reed in mouthpiece
 Bass clarinet: octave lower in range than clarinet
o Bassoon: double-reed instrument, larger and lower in range than the oboe
 Contrabassoon: lowest-pitched of the woodwind instruments
o Saxophone: most recent addition to the woodwind family (1840)
 Single-reed mouthpiece, metal body
 More often found in jazz bands than in orchestras
3. Brass Instruments (Aerophones)
o All these instruments have a metal mouthpiece attached to metal tubing that flares at the end into a bell
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Pitch is changed by using valves, keys, and slides in tubing, and by changing air pressure with lungs and
lips
o Lips "buzz" and act as double reed
 Embouchure: a brass player's oral mechanism; placement of lips, lower facial muscles, and jaw
o Trumpet: highest in pitch of the brass family, has valves
o French horn: lower in pitch than the trumpet, has keys, player keeps hand in bell to affect timbre
o Trombone: played with a movable U-shaped slide
o Tuba: lowest-pitched brass instrument
o Other brass instruments found in bands
 Cornet, bugle, fluegelhorn, euphonium, sousaphone
4. Percussion Instruments (Idiophones and Membranophones)
o Two categories: those that have definite pitch, and those of indefinite pitch
o Percussion instruments with definite pitch
 Timpani or kettledrums: used in sets of two or four, player strikes the "head" (usually a membrane of
plastic), pedal mechanism adjusts the tension of the head and hence the pitch
 Xylophone: family of instruments made of tuned blocks of wood, laid out like a keyboard, played with
mallets
 Marimba: mellow-sounding xylophone
 Vibraphone: xylophone with resonators attached to an electric motor that creates vibrato
 Glockenspiel: German for "set of bells," xylophone made of tuned steel bars
 Celesta: glockenspiel operated by keys of a keyboard, resembles an upright piano, keys cause
hammers to strike the steel plates
 Chimes or tubular bells: set of tuned metal tubes suspended from a frame, struck with a hammer
o Percussion instruments of indefinite pitch
 Snare drum or side drum: small cylindrical drum with two heads (top and bottom), bottom head has
strings (snares) that run across it
 Tenor drum: larger than the snare, has wooden shell and no snares
 Bass drum: large drum, played with a soft-headed stick
 Other percussion instruments of indefinite pitch
 Tom-tom, tambourine, castanets, triangle, cymbals, gong
5. Keyboard Instruments
o Piano: originally known as the pianoforte (Italian for soft-loud), strings are struck with hammers
controlled by keyboard
o Organ: wind instrument, air flow is controlled by a console with two or more keyboards and a pedal
keyboard
o Harpsichord: sound is produced by quills that pluck metal strings
Chapter 10
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1. Choral Groups
o Chorus: a large body of singers
o Choir: traditionally, a smaller group of singers
o A cappella: choral music that is performed without accompaniment
o Smaller specialized vocal ensembles can include
 Madrigal choir: sings secular works a cappella
 Chamber choir: a small group of up to 24 singers
2. Instrumental Chamber Ensembles
o Chamber music: music for an ensemble up to 12 players, with one player on a part
o Standard types of chamber music ensembles:
 String quartet
 Piano duo
 Woodwind quintet
 Brass quintet
3. The Orchestra
o In the West, an orchestra is a symphony orchestra (strings, woodwinds, brass, and percussion)
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o String section is the core of the group
o Early symphony orchestras consisted of about 20 players
o Late-19th-century symphony orchestras consisted of over 100 players
o Arrangement of instruments achieves balance (strings in front)
4. Concert, Jazz, and Rock Bands
o Band: Ensemble in which winds and percussion are the core
o Types of bands
 Concert band or wind ensemble: 40–80 players
 Marching band: entertainment at football games and parades
 Jazz band: includes a section of saxophones
 Rock band: typically features amplified guitars, percussion, and synthesizers
5. The Role of the Conductor
o Leader of large ensembles (orchestras, bands, choruses)
o Conductors beat time and dictate tempo
o Conductors often use a baton (small thin stick) to conduct
o Conductors interpret the music for the ensemble
o The concertmaster: the first-chair violinist, who leads the string section under the conductor
6. Britten: The Young People's Guide to the Orchestra (Listening Guide 1)
o Subtitled Variations and Fugue on a Theme of Purcell
 Theme and 13 short variations
 Each variation highlights a different instrument
 The fugue is based on a fragment of the Purcell theme
 The theme is imitated by the instruments in the same order as they appear in the variations
 Full orchestra ends the work with Purcell's theme heard over the fugue
Chapter 11
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1. Functions of Music
o Music provides different functions in societies, including accompanying religious activities or work, and
serving as entertainment
 Sacred music: music for religious functions
 Secular music: music for entertainment or nonreligious activities
2. The Concept of Style
o Style: the characteristic way an artwork is presented and its distinctive features (jazz vs. classical, disco vs.
rap, etc.)
o Genre: category of music (opera, symphony, string quartet, etc.)
o Medium: specific performing group (orchestra, chorus, etc.)
o Historical periods: organization of Western artworks into chronological groupings, each with its own
characteristics
3. Musical Styles in History
o Medieval Era (c. 476–1450)
o Renaissance Era (1450–1600)
o Baroque Era (1600–1750)
o Classical Era (1750–1825)
o Romantic Era (1825–1900)
o Twentieth Century and beyond (1901–present)
Chapter 12
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The Middle Ages spans nearly 1,000 years (c. 476–1450)
Early Christian church and state were centers of power
In Middle Ages most musical patronage (sponsorship) was from the church
Most surviving music is sacred
Later Middle Ages saw the rise of cities and cathedrals, and creation of great works of art and literature
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The development of medieval musical style
o Single line texture becomes polyphonic
o Development of rhythmic and metric concepts
Chapter 13
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1. Sacred Music in the Middle Ages
o Liturgy: set order of services and structure of each service in the church
o Characteristics of Gregorian chant (plainchant)
 Monophonic texture
 Nonmetric
 Latin text
o Chant is classified by the way the notes are set to the text
 Syllabic: one note per syllable of text
 Melismatic: many notes per syllable of text
o Early chants were handed down orally
o Early chant notation used neumes
 Neumes suggested contours of the melody but not rhythm
o Scale patterns used are the church modes
2. The Mass
o One of two categories of services in the Roman Catholic Church, the other being the Offices
o The prayers that make up the Mass fall into two categories:
 Proper: texts change according to the day
 Ordinary: texts are the same for every Mass
3. Life in the Medieval Cloister
o Cloister: a place for religious seclusion
 Monastery: men
 Convent: women
o Cloisters were places of prayer, scholarship, preaching, charity, healing
4. The Music of Hildegard of Bingen
o Hildegard of Bingen (1098–1179)
o 1150 founded convent in Rupertsberg, Germany
o Known for miracles and prophecies
o Recorded collections of visions and prophecies in manuscript
o Composed religious poetry with music
o Characteristics of Hildegard's poetry
 Brilliant imagery
 Visionary language
 Collected in volume: Symphony of the Harmony of Celestial Revelations, for liturgical church year
5. Hildegard of Bingen: Alleluia, O virga mediatrix (Listening Guide 2)
o From the Mass Proper
 For feasts of the Virgin Mary
o Ternary form (A-B-A)
o Responsorial form (soloist alternates with chorus)
o Monophonic texture
o Conjunct melody with few leaps
o Free, nonmetric rhythm
o Text setting falls between syllabic and melismatic (neumatic)
6. The Rise of Polyphony
o Polyphony evolved toward the end of the Romanesque period (c. 850–1150)
o Organum: earliest polyphonic music
o Second melody added above or below the older Gregorian melody
o Evolved at Cathedral of Notre Dame in Paris
o Polyphony necessitated the use of notated rhythm and pitch
 Rhythm was chosen from a group of patterns called rhythmic modes
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A new genre emerged near the end of the thirteenth century
Composers wrote texts to second melody in organum
New genre called motet (mot is French for "word")
 Sometimes the languages were mixed in one piece
 French and Latin
 Motets can be sacred or secular
 A Gregorian chant is the basis for a motet
7. Secular Music in the Middle Ages
o Secular music grew in a separate tradition from sacred polyphony
o Different classes of secular musicians emerged
 Troubadours were southern French high-class musicians
 Trouvères were northern French high-class musicians
o The poems of the troubadours and trouvères had diverse subjects
 Poetry of secular song often focused on idealized love and chivalry
 Secular songs sung monophonically, with improvised accompaniment
8. The French Ars nova and Guillaume de Machaut
o Ars nova (new art): movement beginning in 14th-century France
 Greater refinement than music of the Ars antiqua (old art)
 New developments in rhythm, meter, harmony, and counterpoint
 Guillaume de Machaut (c. 1300–1377) was the foremost composer
 French poet and composer
 Double career as cleric and courtier
 Composed motets, chansons (French for "songs"), and a polyphonic Mass Ordinary
 Favored fixed text forms: rondeau, ballade, virelai
9. Machaut chanson: Puis qu'en oubli (Listening Guide 3)
o Three-voice French chanson
o Text: rondeau form
o Music reflects pain of unrequited love
 Low melodic range (depths of despair)
10. Early Instrumental Music
o Instruments played a supporting role in vocal music; sometimes doubling
o Instrumental music mostly improvised (not notated) for dance
 Performed by ensembles of soft (bas) or loud (haut) instruments
 Soft instruments include recorder
 Loud instruments include sackbut (early trombone) and shawm (medieval oboe)
 Instruments were categorized by their use (indoor or outdoor)
Chapter 14
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The Renaissance (c. 1450–1600) was an era of exploration, scientific inquiry, and artistic awakening
In Europe, society shifts from predominately religious to secular
Humanist movement was inspired by ancient Greek and Roman culture
Technology enabled voyages to the New World
Understanding of ancient Greek and Roman culture affected all the arts
Architecture reflects balance and proportion
Accurate perspective attempted in two-dimensional painting
o Realism favored over symbolism
The Renaissance first came to flower in Italy
o Painters and sculptors include Leonardo da Vinci and Michelangelo
1. Musicians in Renaissance Society
o Renaissance musicians worked in churches, cities, and courts or as instrument builders, printers, and music
publishers
o Rise of merchant class brought new group of music patrons
o Amateur musicians emerged in cultivated middle and upper classes
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2. Renaissance Musical Style
o The golden age of the a cappella (unaccompanied) style of singing
o Polyphony based on concept of imitation
 Motives are exchanged among melodic lines
o Composers tended toward fuller chords in harmony
o Word painting: an attempt to make the music sound like what the words say
o Cantus firmus (fixed melody) often found as the basis for a new work
o Northern European composers dominated the early Renaissance
Chapter 15
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1. The Motet in the Renaissance
o Renaissance motet had a single Latin text
o Majority of motets had a Marian (Virgin Mary) theme
o Typically motets were written for 3, 4, or more voices
o Sometimes motets were based on a chant (cantus firmus)
2. Josquin des Prez and the Motet
o Called Josquin (c. 1450–1521)
o Franco-Flemish composer, made career in Italy
 Member of Papal choir in Rome
o Humanism evident in his music (emotion over intellect)
o Composed sacred and secular music
3. Josquin: Ave Maria . . . virgo serena (Listening Guide 4)
o Renaissance four-voice motet
o Explores combinations of voices and textures
o Begins with a quotation of chant
 Rest of work is newly composed
o Contrasts sections of imitation with homorhythmic sections
 Homorhythmic: all voices move together rhythmically
o Final couplet: simple texture, example of humanistic spirit
4. The Renaissance Mass
o Composers focused their polyphonic mass settings on the Mass Ordinary
 Kyrie, Gloria, Credo, Sanctus, Agnus Dei
 Mass sung in Latin, not vernacular (language of the country)
 Early polyphonic settings of the Mass were based on fragments of Gregorian chant (cantus firmus)
5. The Late Renaissance Mass
o Protestant revolt led by Martin Luther (1483–1546): Reformation
o Catholic response: Counter-Reformation (1530s–1590s)
 Council of Trent attendees sought to reform Catholic Church
 Concerns of Council of Trent
 Corruption of chant by embellishment
 Use of certain instruments in religious services
 Incorporation of popular music in Masses
 Secularism of music
 Irreverent attitude of church musicians
 Committee recommended a pure vocal style that respected the integrity of the sacred texts
6. Palestrina and the Pope Marcellus Mass
o Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina (c. 1525–1594)
 Called Palestrina, Italian composer, organist, choirmaster
 Worked in the Sistine Chapel Choir (Pope Julius III)
 Wrote mostly sacred music
o Pope Marcellus Mass met the new strict demands of the Council of Trent
7. Palestrina: Pope Marcellus Mass, Gloria (Listening Guide 5)
o Probably performed a cappella
o Written for 6 voice parts
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 Soprano (sung by boys or male falsettists)
 Alto (sung by male altos or countertenors)
 Tenor I
 Tenor II
 Bass I
 Bass II
The texture varies but the text is clear
 Opens with a monophonic intonation
 Choral sections are polyphonic
 Text is clear and audible, set syllabically
Chapter 16
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Professional musicians entertained in courts and at civic functions
Merchant class amateurs played and sang at home
Most popular instruments: lute, keyboard instruments
Well-bred young women were expected to have studied music
o Some women achieved great fame as professional singers
Main genres: chanson and madrigal
1. The Chanson
o Favored vocal genre in France in the 15th century
o Usually for 3 or 4 voices
o Set to courtly love verses
 Freer poetic structures
2. Instrumental Dance Music
o 16th century was a period of growth for instrumental music
o Published music was readily available
o Instrumentation was unspecified
 The occasion dictated the ensemble (indoor or outdoor)
o Popular dance types:
 Ronde: less courtly round dance, danced in a circle outdoors
3. Susato: Three Dances (Listening Guide 6)
o Set of three rondes from the 1551 Danserye collection
 Instrumental dances published by Tielman Susato (c. 1515–c. 1571)
o Performed by a loud wind band
 Loud instruments included: shawm, sackbut, cornetto, tabor, tambourine
o Binary form (A-A-B-B)
 Repeated sections with added improvised embellishments
4. The Madrigal
o Chief form of Renaissance secular music
 Song form flourished at the Italian courts
o Text: short poem of lyric or reflective nature
 Includes "loaded" words: weeping, sighing, trembling, dying, etc.
o Music: sets text expressively
o Instruments double or substitute for the voices
o Claudio Monteverdi (1567-1643) is master of the late Italian madrigal
 Published 8 books of madrigals
5. The Madrigal in England
o Composers in England further developed the Italian madrigals
o English madrigals were often simpler and lighter in style than Italian
 New English madrigals were soon cultivated, some with refrain syllables ("fa la la")
6. John Farmer's Fair Phyllis (Listening Guide 7)
o Dublin-born composer (c. 1570–1601)
 Active in 1590s in Dublin
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 Organist and master of choirboys at Christ Church
Fair Phyllis typical of English madrigal
 Cheerful mood
 Sectional repetitions
 Contrapuntal imitation
 Contrasting texture (homorhythmic, polyphonic)
 Word painting (sitting alone, up and down)
Chapter 17
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The Baroque Era spans roughly the years 1600–1750
Time of turbulent change in politics, science, arts
Time of religious wars and exploration of the New World
Rise of middle-class culture
Music-making centered in the home, church, and universities
1. Main Currents in Baroque Music
o Origins of the Monodic Style
o Monody: new style featuring solo song with instrumental accompaniment
 Monody was promoted by the Florentine Camerata:
 Group of writers and musicians who sought to resurrect musical-dramatic art of ancient Greece
o Monody focused on text and its emotional power
 They called this new style Le nuove musiche:
 The expressive style of the new music led directly to the invention of opera
2. New Harmonic Structures
o Basic harmonies were understood and not fully notated
 Figured bass: shorthand notation for harmony
 Chords created through improvisation
 Basso continuo: bass part, performed by 2 instruments
 Chordal instrument (lute, keyboard, etc.) and bass instrument
o Major-minor tonality system is established
 Equal temperament: a tuning system that allows instruments to play in all keys is developed
 J. S. Bach's The Well-Tempered Clavier (2 vols.), each containing 24 preludes and fugues,
demonstrates the major and minor keys
3. Baroque Musical Style
o Early Baroque rhythm is freer
o Late Baroque rhythm is regular and vigorous
o Emotions expressed with subtle and dramatic dynamic changes
4. The Doctrine of the Affections
o An entire piece or movement was built on a single affection (emotion)
5. The Rise of the Virtuoso Musician
o Instrument builders improved and refined instruments
o Composers challenged the performers with music that was demanding
 Antonio Vivaldi
o Rise of virtuosity was both instrumental and vocal
 Castrato: a male singer who was castrated in boyhood to retain soprano or alto vocal range
o Performers improvised beyond what was written in the music score
6. Women in Baroque Music
o More professional women were singers and instrumentalists
 Italian virtuoso sopranos:
 Faustina Bordoni
 Francesca Cuzzoni
 French composer/harpsichordist:
 Elisabeth-Claude Jacquet de la Guerre
 In general, the Baroque enjoyed free interchange among culture
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 Handel: German, wrote Italian opera for English audience
Additionally, there was a trend towards exoticism
 Near East, the Americas, and elsewhere were sources for ideas
Chapter 18
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1. The Components of Opera
o Opera is a large-scale sung drama
 Combines music with poetry, drama, acting, pantomime, scenery and costumes
o Recitative: musical declamation, plot is advanced
 Secco: accompanied only by continuo instruments
 Accompagnato: accompanied by the orchestra
o Aria: a song, usually highly emotional, stands out from recitative
 Da capo aria: a ternary (A-B-A) song form
o Ensemble numbers: characters join together in song
 Duet: two voices
 Trio: three voices
 Quartet, etc.: four voices, and so on
o Chorus: used to back up solo voices, or functions independently
o Overture: instrumental number begins the opera
 Sinfonias: instrumental interludes between acts and scenes
o Libretto: the text of the work
 Librettist: the person who writes the text
2. The Earliest Operas
o Claudio Monteverdi is first great master of opera
 Early opera plots derived from Greek mythology
 Later plots based on history
 Operas depicted powerful emotions
o English masque:
 combination of vocal and instrumental music with poetry and dance
 Popular entertainment in aristocratic homes
o During the Commonwealth, stage plays were forbidden
 A play set to music and called a "concert" was allowed
3. Henry Purcell: His Life and Music
o English singer, organist, and composer
o Synthesized elements from Italian and French opera
o Wrote sacred and secular music
4. Dido and Aeneas
o Written for girls' boarding school
o Based on an episode in Virgil's Aeneid
o Librettist: Nahum Tate
o Plot: Aeneas is shipwrecked at Carthage
 Dido, the queen of Carthage, falls in love with Aeneas
 Aeneas leaves Dido and continues on to found Rome
 Dido decides her fate is death
5. Purcell: Dido and Aeneas, Act III: Dido's Lament and Chorus (Listening Guide 8)
o Recitative: "Thy hand, Belinda"
o Aria: "When I am laid in earth"
 Five-measure chromatically descending ground bass (ostinato)
6. The Baroque Oratorio
o Large-scale dramatic genre with religious or biblical text
o Performed by solo voices, chorus, orchestra
o No staging or costumes
o George Frideric Handel was the consummate master
7. George Frideric Handel (1685–1750): His Life and Music
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Born in Germany
Success brought him to London
Royal Academy of Music
Prolific composer of Italian opera seria (Julius Caesar)
After opera seria fell out of vogue, composed oratorios
 Israel in Egypt, Messiah
o Handel's musical style was international
 Tended toward diatonic harmonies
 Tone color used for atmosphere and expression
 Wrote more than 40 operas
 Expanded the role of the chorus
 Prolific composer of instrumental music
 Orchestral suites
 Water Music
 Music for the Royal Fireworks
8. Handel: Messiah (Listening Guide 9)
o Premiered in Dublin in 1742
o Written in 24 days
o Libretto: compilation of Old and New Testament
o Modest orchestra size
o In three parts: Christmas, Easter, and Redemption
 I. Christmas: relates the prophecy of the coming of Christ
 Soprano aria "Rejoice greatly" (da capo aria)
 II: Easter: Christ's suffering and death
 "Hallelujah Chorus" remains a popular piece
 Built on contrasting textures: homorhythmic/imitation
 III: Redemption of the world through faith
9. The Baroque Cantata
o One or more solo vocalists
o Instrumental accompaniment
o Chorus (added later to the genre)
o Themes may be secular or sacred
o Lutheran sacred cantatas for use in the Lutheran church service
o Unified by a chorale
 Chorale: hymn tune associated with German Protestantism
 Battle hymns of the Reformation
o Martin Luther inaugurated church services in German rather than in Latin
o Chorales are a unifying thread of the Protestant cantatas
10. J. S. Bach and the Lutheran Cantata
o Wrote more than 200 church cantatas
o Each has five to eight movements
 First, last, and usually one middle movement are choral
 Also includes arias and recitatives
o Cantata No. 80, A Mighty Fortress Is Our God (Listening Guide 10)
 Typical of Bach's cantatas in style
 Set to Martin Luther's chorale, which is still sung today
 I: Opens with choral movement in D major
 Each line receives fugal treatment
 Middle movements: freely composed recitatives and arias
 Fifth movement is a unison chorale
 Lilting 6/8 meter (chorale originally in quadruple meter)
 Orchestra plays prominent role; alternates with chorus
 Last movement sung by full chorus with orchestra
 Homophonic texture
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1. The Rise of Instrumental Music
o Instrumental music gained position of importance in the Baroque
o Virtuosos raised the technique of playing to new heights
o Early-Baroque composers did not specify instrumentation
o Late-Baroque composers chose instruments according to timbre
2. Baroque Instruments
o Instrument designs were improved
o Finest violins in history came from shops of Italian craftsmen
 Stradivarius
o Baroque violin strings made of gut (today's are of steel)
o Woodwinds were all made of wood
o Trumpet moves from purely military use to orchestral member
o Horns and trumpets were valveless, called "natural" instruments
 Could play in only one key at a time
o Timpani occasionally added to the orchestra
 Modern recordings reflect an attempt towards authenticity with the use of historically accurate
instruments
3. Baroque Concerto Types
o Form reflects the basic elements of Baroque: contrast and unity
o Concerto: from the Latin concertare ("to contend with")
 Instrumental form based on the opposition of different forces
o Two types of concerto
 Solo concerto: one instrument set against the orchestra
 Increased virtuosity in solo violin concertos by Vivaldi
 Concerto grosso: small group of soloists set against orchestra
 Concertino: small group in the concerto grosso
 Ripieno, or tutti: large group in the concerto grosso
 Bach's 6 Brandenburg Concertos represent this genre
4. Antonio Vivaldi (1678–1741): Life and Music
o Catholic Priest in Venice, "the red priest" (reference to hair color)
o Music master at the Conservatorio dell'Ospedale della Pietà
 School for orphaned girls
o Prolific composer:
 More than 500 concertos
 Chamber music
 Operas
 Cantatas
 One oratorio
 Extended setting of the Gloria
5. Vivaldi's The Four Seasons (Listening Guide 11)
o Group of four violin concertos
o Each concerto accompanied by a poem
o Music depicts specific lines of the poem
o Spring (La primavera)
 Solo violin with string orchestra and continuo
 Three movements:
 I: Evokes bird song, murmuring streams, thunder, lightning
 Orchestral ritornello: a refrain returns again and again
 Ritornello form: alternating new material and refrain
 II: Largo in triple meter
 Evokes an image from poem describing a sleeping goatherd
 Ostinato "dog bark" is heard in violas
 III: Rustic Dance, evokes drone of bagpipes
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6. The Baroque Suite
o A suite is a group of international dance types typically in the same key
o Standard dances in a suite:
 Allemande: German dance, quadruple meter, moderate tempo
 Courante: French dance in triple meter at moderate tempo
 Sarabande: stately Spanish dance in triple meter
 Gigue (jig): English dance in a lively 6/8 or 6/4
 Other optional dances: minuet, hornpipe, etc.
o Form is usually A-A-B-B (binary) or A-B-A (ternary)
o Repeated sections in binary form were ornamented when played for second time
o Suites written for solo instruments (keyboard), for chamber ensembles and for orchestra
7. Handel and the Orchestral Suite
o Two notable suites by Handel
 Water Music
 Music for the Royal Fireworks
8. Handel's Water Music, Suite in D major, Hornpipe (Listening Guide 12)
o Written for Royal party on the Thames River in London, July 17, 1717
o Performed without continuo (no harpsichord on a boat)
o Divided into three suites
o D-major Suite
 Opens with fanfare-like movement
 Followed by lively hornpipe (dance) in ternary form
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1. Keyboard Instruments
o Three important instruments
 Organ: used in church and in the home
 Harpsichord: strings plucked by quills
2. Keyboard Forms
o Two basic types:
 Based on harmony with strong element of improvisation
 Prelude, toccata: short introductory piece based on improvisation
 Chorale prelude: embellished chorale tune, introductory
 Chorale prelude
 Stricter forms based on counterpoint (fugue)
3. The Fugue and Its Devices
o Name is derived from Latin word for "flight"
o The fugue is based on the principle of imitation
o Melodic lines are called voices (instrumental or vocal)
o Fugal structure
 Exposition:
 Subject (main theme) is stated alone in one voice (tonic)
 Next a second voice imitates the theme with the answer (dominant)
 The first voice continues with a countertheme
 The subject is stated in a third voice (depending on the number of voices)
 A fourth voice follows with another statement of the answer
 Exposition ends when all the voices have presented the theme
 Episodes:
 Relaxed interludes between complex statements of the exposition
o Contrapuntal devices
 Augmentation: stating a melody in longer time values
 Diminution: stating a melody in shorter time values
 Retrograde: stating the pitches backwards (starting from the last and going to the first)
 Inversion: turning the melodic intervals upside down
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 Retrograde inversion: original melody is played upside down and backwards
4. J. S. Bach (1685-1750): His Life and Music
o German composer, organist, educator
o Culminating figure of the Baroque Style
o Career in Northern Germany as court and Lutheran church musician
 Secular: Weimar (1708–17)
 Secular: Cöthen (1717–23)
 Church: Leipzig (1723–50)
 Duties at Leipzig
 Supervise music for four main Leipzig churches
 Select and train choristers
 Compose music for church services
 Compose music for special occasions
 Direct collegium musicum (university group)
o Two separate marriages, fathered 20 children in all
o Key output: organ music
 Chorale prelude: based on embellished chorale tune
 Other works as well (Toccata and Fugue in D minor)
o Keyboard music
 The Well-Tempered Clavier
 48 preludes and fugues, in two volumes
 English and French Suites
o Instrumental music
 Sonatas and concertos
 The Brandenburg Concertos
 Orchestral suites
o Sacred Vocal Music
 200-plus church cantatas
 Passion: setting of account of the Crucifixion
 Mass in B minor
o Contrapuntal masterworks
 The Art of Fugue
5. Bach's Keyboard Fugues
o J. S. Bach was a master at complex fugal writing
 The Well-Tempered Clavier is a collection of preludes and fugues in all keys
 2 volumes, 12 paired works each (total of 48 preludes and fugues)
 Last and most significant contrapuntal work: The Art of Fugue
 The work is a collection of fugues and canons
 Showcases Bach's technical mastery
6. Bach's Contrapunctus I, from The Art of Fugue (Listening Guide 13)
o 4-voice fugue
 Exposition:
 Subject is presented in order: alto-soprano-bass-tenor
 Episode:
 Incorporates musical symbolism
 His name in notes Bb-A-C-H
 Final statement uses pedal point (sustained bass note)
 Minor harmony but closes on major chord
Chapter 21
Chapter 22
Chapter 23
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Chapter 24
Chapter 25
Chapter 26
Chapter 27
Chapter 28
Chapter 29
Chapter 30
Chapter 31
Chapter 32
Chapter 33
Chapter 34
Chapter 35
Chapter 36
Chapter 37
Chapter 38
Chapter 39
Chapter 40
Chapter 41