Download Reinforcement? - DucoPsychology

What is learning?
Four Types of Learning
1. Classical Conditioning
• Method of
conditioning –
associations are
made between a
natural stimulus
and a learned,
neutral stimulus.
2. Operant Conditioning
Conditioning that results from
the individual’s actions and
the consequences they cause.
3. Cognitive learning
• Emphasizes thought process in
learning
4. Social Learning
• Learning that results from
observing others
CLASSICAL
CONDITIONING
• Pavlov – Page 5 in packet
Unconditioned stimulus
Unconditioned response
Conditioned stimulus
Conditioned response
*Neutral (not vocab word): has no
response prior to learning
Complete page 6 in
packet
CLASSICAL
CONDITIONING
• Conditioned Taste Aversion (in
packet)
– learned association between the taste
of a certain food and a feeling of nausea
– Examples ?
Writing Response
• “Give me a dozen healthy infants,
allow me to control the environment,
and I can make them into anything I
want.”
– Is this possible? How
– What ethical issues would be involved?
John Watson and
Emotional Conditioning:
(conditioning an
emotion)
Little Albert
________ + ___________ _______
N
UCS
___________
CS
UCR
___________
CR
Rat (N)  Loud sound (UCS)  Fear (UCR)
Rat (CS)  Fear (CR)
Little Albert
• Stimulus Generalization?
– A response spread from one specific stimulus
to other stimuli that resemble the original.
John Watson showed 2
things:
• 1. Can condition emotions
2. Conditioned emotion can generalize to other
objects
Ethical Issues?
• Would this experiment be allowed
today?
– Name some ethical issues
Where is Big Albert?
• Extinction?
– The Gradual loss of an
association over time.
– Pavlov’s dogs would
extinguish (stop) their
salivation at the
experimenter unless the
experimenter continued
to feed them
occasionally.
• Set up classical conditioning equation
• 1. Jim and Dwight
• 2. Closing time
Removal of Fears
• Mary Cover Jones
– Removed fear of rabbits found in 3 year old boy
by pairing rabbit with pleasant stimulus.
Operant
Conditioning
Operant Conditioning
RECALL:
Conditioning that
results from one’s
actions and the
consequences they
cause
Reinforcement
• Reinforcement?
– strengthens a behavior – you want it!
• Positive reinforcement?
– addition of something pleasant
• Negative reinforcement?
– taking away or avoiding something
unpleasant.
• Primary reinforcers
• Secondary reinforcers?
Punishment
• Punishment?
– weakening a behavior
– Positive punishment?
• something unpleasant is added
– Negative punishment?
• something pleasant is taken away
Skinner box?
What do you think are the
Problems with Punishment?
1. The effects temporary
2. does not teach desired behaviors.
3. may be reinforcing.
4. may respond with fear, anxiety, or
anger.
Big Bang Theory
Principles of Operant
Conditioning
• Generalization: (recall)
– a behavior that spreads from one situation to a
similar one.
– E.g., Petting a friendly dog – all dogs are
friendly
• Extinction: (recall)
– when a response is no longer followed by
reinforcement, person will gradually stop making
that response.
• Discrimination learning?
– to tell the difference between one event or
object and another
– E.g., petting a third dog and getting bitten – not
all dogs are friendly
Generalization, Discrimination, and Extinction
• Brett makes a wisecrack in his first-period
psychology class, and everyone laughs, even
the teacher. The following types of
learning may occur:
• Generalization: He makes wisecracks in
other classes, in front of other teachers.
• Discrimination: He makes wisecracks in
other classes, but when no one laughs or
when the teacher glares at him, he stops.
He decides to tell jokes only during first
period psychology class.
• Extinction: He continues to make wisecrack
during first period, but when others tire of
his jokes and stop laughing, he stops.
Spanking and IQ article
Schedules of
Reinforcement
• So far we have focused on continuous
reinforcement
– Each time a behavior occurs, reinforcement is
given. But there are problems with this approach
What is schedule of
reinforcement?
1. Variable Ratio Schedule?
Reinforcement occurs after a desired
behavior occurs, but a different number of
the desired acts is required each time.
– E.g., varying how many times a pigeon has to
pecks before giving them food. Will pick
over 10,000 times once learning has taken
place!
– How is slot machines an example?
•
2.
Fixed
Ratio?
Reinforcement occurs after the desired act is
performed a specific number of times
– E.g., A pigeon is rewarded after every five
pecks
– May produce less quality of desired
behavior
3. Variable Interval?
• Reinforcement occurs after
varying amounts of time if a
desired act occurs
– The organism never knows (in
terms of time) when the
reinforcement will arrive.
• E.g. ?
4. Fixed interval
Schedule
• A reinforcement is received
after a fixed amount of
time has passed if the
desired act occurs
– E.g. ?
Bobo Doll Experiment
• Albert Bandura
• Children who observe aggressive
adult models become aggressive
themselves.
• Admired and rewarded models most
likely to be copied
• Children see children do
Violent Video Games
Cognitive Learning
• based on abstract mental processes
and previous knowledge.
Phobias
Watson and little Albert.
• Recall:
• Not all phobias form from straight
association.
• Conditioning of fears develop through a
cognitive process.
– Phobias develop in relation to some kind of
natural danger.
Cognitive Maps
• E.C. Tolman
• Cognitive Maps: A mental image of where one is
located in space.
• Strategies: Methods for solving Problems
Sensory Memory
• 1 -2 seconds
• Raw information from the senses
• Needs attention to move on
– If given attention passes through to the
short term memory
Short Term Memory
• HOLD onto new information
• 15-20 seconds
• 5 – 9 items
• Chunking – grouping of info into
meaningful units – allows us to
remember more and remember easier
How do we move to long
term?
• Serial Position effect
– Recency effect – more likely to
remember words at the end of list (still
in STM
– Primacy effect – more likely to
remember words at the beginning of list
(rehearse words = LTM)
Maintaining Long Term
Memory
• Rote rehearsal – repeating info over
and over
• Elaborative Rehearsal – Making info
meaningful – make a connection!
Which is the real penny?
Forgetting verse Not
Getting
• Do we forget or not pay attention?
• Which color is on top of a stoplight?
• Is Lincoln wearing a tie on the penny?
Maintaining LTM
• Rote rehearsal – repeating info over
and over
• Elaborative Rehearsal – Making info
meaningful – make a connection!
• Mnemonics – Techniques that help
you remember
– Peg Word System
• Visuals work!
Types of LTM
• Episodic Memory
– Personal Memories (daily journal)
• Semantic Memory
Implicit Memory – Memories
we cannot easily express in
words – may be unaware of
having
– Facts and concepts
(dictionary/encyclopedia)
• Procedural Memory
Explicit Memory – we can easily
express in words and are aware of
having
– Motor skills & Habits (How to Guide)
• Emotional Memory
– Learned emotional responses
• 1. What you use while riding a bike
• 2. What you use while recalling the
events that led up to the Civil War
• 3. What you use when you scream at
the sight of a spider
• 4. What you use when you remember
•
your first date
• Schemas: organized mental
frameworks that we rely on to
interpret incoming information
– Influence retrieval of info in long-term
memory
• Can cause us to fabricate false
memories that are consistent with
our schemas
Forgetting
• Decay – we lose memories as time
passes on
• Amnesia
– Retrograde – cannot remember what
happened shortly before injury
– Childhood/infantile – difficulty in
remembering experiences from age 2
and under
• Child’s brain not fully developed
• Lack clear sense of self
• Lack language skills
Forgetting Interference
• Retroactive Interference– New
material interferes with info already
in LTM
– Move to new house – new address –
forget old house address
• Proactive interference – old material
interferes with new material
State-dependent memory
• Recall material better if you return
to the same state that you were in
during learning
– E.g., caffeine
Context-dependent
memory
• Having the same environmental cues
when you recall what you have
learned
– E.g., police take witness back to the
scene of a crime
• Man with 30 Seconds
Cognition and Mental
Abilities
Chapter 7
Standford-Binet
• First test developed
• Measure four abilities: verbal reasoning,
abstract/visual reasoning, quantitative reasoning,
short term memory
• Given individually
• Introduced IQ
EXAMPLE
1. Describe the difference between laziness and
idleness
2. Which direction would you have to face so that
your right ear would be facing north?
Wechsler Intelligence
Scales
• Most commonly used
• Stanford-Binet emphasized verbal
skills (flaw)
– Ability to handle life situations?
• Two parts: verbal skills,
performance skills
• Two separate scores, overall IQ
Problem Solving
• Problem representation – define the
problem
• Solution Strategy
– Trail and Error
– Algorithms – step-by-step method of
problem solving that guarantees a
correct solution
– Heuristics – rules of thumb – do not
guarantee a solution
Obstacles to Solving
Problems
• Mental Set – tendency to perceive
and to approach problems in certain
ways
– Problems if stuck in mental set
• Functional Fixedness – tendency to
perceive only a limited number of
uses for an object (blocks problem
solving process)
• Representative Heuristic – judge the
likelihood of an event based on how
well it seems to match (represent) a
typical member of a category.
• Availability heuristic – judgment or
decision is based on information that
is most easily retrieved from memory
Insight
• Insight: sudden understanding of a
problem – component of intelligence
– ‘aha’ feeling
• Brainstorming – strategy in which an
individual or group produces
numerous ideas and evaluates them
only after all ideas have been
collected
Creativity
• No correlation with intelligence
• But…
• Creative people perceived as being
more intelligent