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2. Characteristics of modern English.
According to the general division all languages
fall into two groups: synthetic and analytical.
Synthetic languages are characterized by some
features: a noun has several cases, a verb has
several persons and tenses and adjective changes
according to the degrees of comparison.
Analytical languages differ from synthetic. Most
of them use articles and auxiliary verbs to form
grammatical aspects of the words. English is
supposed to be mostly analytical:
continuous and perfect tenses are formed
analytically by means of the auxiliary verbs
which don`t have lexical meaning (this is a
main thing in the analytical form)
but the present indefinite and past tenses are
formed synthetically by adding suffixes.
most of forms are formed analytically both
in passive and active voice.
Modern English being analytical at the whole
comprises also not only the element of the
syntactic type based on the flective form, but also
elements of the root type based on the fixed word
order (subject-predicate-object). “A hunter killed
a bear. A bear killed a hunter”.
1.The levels of grammatical organization.
Grammar is a system of contact connections both
of morphemes as the smallest meaningful units
and sentences as the largest meaningful units
within the speech complexes.
The types of connection are viewed from the
levels of grammatical organization. These levels
are:
1) positional or directly (code)
2) inventional
3) communicatively-styled
These levels render the main structural
organization of language and express grammatical
generalization.
They are inseparably interconnected creating a
certain kind of a pyramid. Its bottom - the first
level which is logical by its nature. This level is
common to all the peoples irrespecting of the
concrete language they speak. The second rank is
second level of grammatical abstraction. Any
notion as the meaningful essence of logical
concept requires some language matter for its
realization. That`s why the interaction of these
two levels is one of the main laws of language
functioning. The top of the pyramid is the third
level which is based on delivering information. It
is individual. It presupposes the act of
communication but the language creating
possibilities of each person are limited by:
1) the persons belonging to a definite language
community
2) the concrete language `inventory which is
the only source for language activities of
any person
Each level has its own formalized meaning. It is
correlation (the line between the thinking person
and the outward objects) for the first, correctivity
(gives the grammatical regulation of the line of
identification correcting it in a national way of
contacts) for the second and electiveness for the
third level. The formalized sphere is the positional
direction for correlation, the grammatical types
for correctivity, the grammatical synonimy
(speech complex) for electiveness.
3. The category of quantity and its essence.
The essence of this category renders the numerical
relations from zero to endless. Zero represents the
complete absence of qualitative essence.
Quantitative zero is grammatically expressed
either by the complete quantitative negation
which doesn’t permit any remaining quality
(nobody, nothing) or by the zero article. Thus zero
is a form of manifesting the negative quantity
endless being the oppositional side of the form
representing the positive quantity. From the
qualitative point of view it expresses quantity
totally manifesting it in its gradation from 1 to 0.
Within the extreme numerical gradations on
positive quantity there exist additional gradation.
They express the person`s individual appreciation
of quantity it may be miserable (few, little), great
(much, many), intermediate (some, several).
Thus the positive quantity operates with upper
levels which may be represented:
1) on numerical account (from 1 to any
quantitative indefiniteness)
2)
in subjective numerical approach
towards the object (from little to much)
3) in the extreme numerical gradations
(least-most; first-last)
All these three derivations of quantity are united
by the category of quantity which operates within
its main quantitative oppositions (nothing as
quantitative zero indicating the absence of
quantity and all as quantitative endlessness
indicating presence of quantity in its total
amount). The category of quantity has universal
character which embraces 3 subcategories of
minor range: the category of number, measure,
extremity.
4. The category of number.
It has the opposition of its meaning expressed
discreetness-indiscreetness. Discreetness as a
strong member of the opposition is based on
singularity, plurality which form the category of
number.
The category of number creates the foundation of
all the parts of speech phonation. The oppositions
observed here greatly removed because of the
quantitative factor complexity that includes the
various gradations capable to be perceived in their
unity and separability (crew, family are used in
the sing. and plur.).
The latter in the noun depends on the following 2
points:
1) the level of abstraction understood in the
forms of the quantitative representation
2) the factor of the nouns` belonging to the
class of an animateness/unanimateness
The nature of perception of an object in its
quantitative connections owing to which any
quality of the object is treated either:
1) as quantitatively fixed
2) as something that can not be quantitative
fixed
The really existing opposition one uniteverything exceeds. It enters the positive part
which represents the existing quantity. It displays
itself as a particular case of a more general
oppositive dichotomy: presence of quantity is
opposed to absence of it.
Zero quantity is expressed on the syntactical
level by means of negation (daren`t, shan`t) and
by some morphological means (nothing,
nobody).
On the one hand plurality and singularity are
contrasted with the absence as a negative feature
and thus they prove to be united by the same
meaning (presence of quantity or a positive
quantity). In this meaning we can say that singular
manifistates itself as the meaning of plurality. In
its very anture it is concrete which finds
expression in a form of all countable nouns
irrespective of their belonging to adverbs.
But the nature of plurality is a bit of different
essence. Plurality deals with the usual formulae of
addition according to which the some is always
equal to plural number irrespective of the concrete
number items. In this respect grammatical
meaning of plurality has one common feature: It`s
abstract quantity which can comprise the notion of
singularity in the character of its generalizing
abstract quantity. In this sense absence of quantity
and plurality which comprises generalized
singularity can be connected as abstract meanings
opposed to the concrete meaning of singularity.
5.Meaning of singularity.
Singularity may be defined as a specific variant of
positive quantity or infinite plurality. In the sphere
of positive quantity there is a flowing transition of
singularity into plurality which is realizes by the
different levelness of singularity. Its entrance into
the sphere of plurality gives it a shade of
quantitative abstractness, which permits it to
express the generalizingly abstract quantity. In
connection was it that very determination of
singularity should include the meaning of the
completely represented object. That’s why the
inner concept of singularity embraces 2 extreme
levels of quantitative gradations and one
intermediate level. The first extreme level as the
initial one is equal to the countable unit (dog,
tree). The intermediate level as a transitional one
renders the summary generalizing singularity
which is finally subdivided into 2 groups:
1) concretizing (furniture)
2) abstract (pleasure, milk)
The highest level of singularity due to its
conceptually quantitative generalization and lack
of concretness as if overpassing the limits of
singularity. In this respect it transferes into the
sphere of plurality where the abstractly
quantitative foundation unites them together.
6. Meaning of plurality.
The grammatical meaning of plurality is to
represent quantitative abstractness. It`s plural
which permits to comprehend the singular
meaning differently. Plural is also of the different
degrees of its generalization.
There is:
1) The concretizing plurality which reflects the
dual character of the object combined into
one inseparable entirety (scissors, trousers,
sales).
2) The indefinite quantitative plurality which is
not correlated with singularity, because
there`s the uncountable essence that cannot
be represented in its quantitative separation
(movables-движимое имущество).
3) The abstract plurality which creates the
grammatical forms overgrowing narrow
units of the traditional numerical
oppositions: singularity-plurality.
8.Quantity within the nominal system.
Within the nominal system the category of
number occupies the predominant position. It is of
the most resistance see here being the only
category which remains unchangeable in any
language evolutions. When the other cat. such as
gender and case disappear functioning in the
nominal system. It renders the quantitative
relations directly and subordinates that temporal
and spaceal relations while functioning within the
verbal system. it renders the quantitative relations
indirectly.
But even in the nominal system the cat. of number
and it’s meaning is not renounces.
In substances it requires the repetition of the
homogeneous objects when nothing more can be
added. “a house+a house=houses”.
The article as a formal limitator of any substantive
is also penetrated by the quantitative oppositions.
The leading meaning of it is concretizing the
quantitative aspect which is based on polarization
of the kind of zero as negative and qualitative- as
positive.
The zero meaning is expressed by the zero article
used with uncountable nouns where it is
impossible to take any part from something which
has neither size, nor volume.
Within the qualitative part any representation of
quantity is not of independent kind being directly
subjected.
10. Category of spreading duration.
1) the patriciple form.
1) the gerundial form
2) the continuous form
The suffix –ing is used in participle, gerund,
continuous and in verbal nouns. The suffix –ing in
patriciple form reveals uniformity of spreading
the action within the temporal zone mocked by
the predicate.
We saw him working in the garden.
Any sentence being a complete unit of thought is
obligatory marked by the definite temporal plan
concentrated as a rule in its predicate, everything
else which may be represented as having the
parallel duration should be also rendered.
She was in the room in dreamt about him. –
Parallel development is being expressed by two
different predicates revealing the idea of the
person’s being and dreaming.
Such a duplication is not obligatory norm of
representing the temporal parallelism. Moreover
duplication is usually used in a grammar as a
special stylistic means for creating a definite
grammatical stress.
The greatest – by far the greatest.
But if the emphatic stress isn`t remarkable there
exists special form in English which changing the
structure of the sentence may create a definite
parallelism of the temporal plan (she was in her
room dreaming about him). In this example the
simultaneousness of these two processes takes
place as obvious. Thus somebody’s being is the
first process and her dreaming is the second one
occuring at the same period of time. In
combination with a noun modified by an –ing
form the meaning of temporal simultaneousness
remains.
The simultaneous temporality concerns neither
observed process nor the static features. It`s
representing as something or somebody that
reveals one of its potential features, just at the
moment of its being in the plain or smiling state.
That is of the moment of its fixation.
The temporal zone created by the present
participle has an open character not only because
of its dependence on its predicate but first of all
because of its grammatical meaning.
In all the cases being used with the verbs or the
nouns, it manifests the meaning of spreading
duration which has no final aim in view of its
term. Any limit of this duration may be put by the
static and possessive features of the object itself.
The perfect form of present participle creates a
close form of temporality.
The perfect participle being closed has the final
aim in view put forward by the very meaning of
priority which exists only before the definite act
takes place.
The indefinite participle being open has no limits
of its duration except the object together with
which the process of spreading duration becomes
possible.
Having generalized the category of spreading
duration the gerund reveals an additional
grammatical nuance, the meaning of qualitative
limitation.” I rely on her. I rely on Peter’s
answering.”
Interruptiveness of spreading duration is limited
in such cases being defined by the qualitative
limitation due to which the qualifience scope may
become narrow or wider as the scope of
temporality.
Smoking- not limited. My smoking.- limited by
scope. My today’s smoking– limited by period of
time.
The gerund has the double plan expression of
spreading duration.
1) the dependent plan which is determined by
possible availability of the qualitative
limitator.” my today`s writing”
2) The independent plan which is determined
by the gerundial form itself (writing, being
written) and which may be represented in
the Passive.
The narrow grammatical character of grammatical
form reproduces not only the general meaning of
spreading duration equally common to this form,
but gerund. The additional meaning is inherent
only in continuous form which expresses its
relative temporal independence of narrowing
character of spreading duration rendered by its
structure.
In any temporal zone (present/past) spreading an
action is limited by a definite period which should
be covered duratively and not interruptively.
Detailing this temporal character may be
increased by 2 factors:
1) additional introducing of the lexical
indicators of a different character (now, at 7
o’clock)
2) durative uniformity which may be
underlined by the indefinite moment, of the
general
temporal
line
to
the
predicates.”When i came in they were
getting into the taxi.”
By the form of came we render the same temporal
zone past time. One action is nearly crossing the
other not being managed.
The general additional character of suffix –ing is
observed towards the other aspectological point
of view.” She has been reading a book.”
Such usage becomes possible due to generalizing
of the suffix –ing. It’s used as a producer of the
meaning of spreading duration. It also has
additional grammatical specificity of the form as
the producer of temporal independence of
narrowing character of durative spreading. This
additional meaning is preserved in any continuous
form from the aspectological point of view.
11. The category of limitation.
It has a universal character. It serves to reflect the
rescriptive relations of reality as language
development is the considerable degree of the
result limiting due to which the reality of being is
expressed. It’s a terminative essence of limitation
that defines not only the nominal system
subdivision but the further unfounding into
sentences and supersensual units and
extrasegments. It’s the only category that
embraces all levels of language abstraction :
semantical, paradygmatical, syntacticall, lexical.
The semantical one is represented by subdividing
different semantical, phonetical complexes into 2
unequal parts/ groups, each of which is united
either by its positive/ negative charge.
The positive charge may be marked as D+, it has
its final aim in view. (come) mostly consonants
reveal the meaning.
The negative group is marked as D-, it has no
final development aim. In their unity they
compose the integral meaning .
The lexical level reserves this semantic
subdivision representing it in words, each of
which refers to a definite part of speech.
Thus the charge of the limitating potential being
increased or weakened by its combination with a
definite meaning gives a word as a vocabulary
unit the same negative or positive limitating
character. This character is obligatory built of
unifying the groups which semantically have
nothing in common.
Consequently such verbs as to come, to break, to
begin, to drop expressing actions referred to
positive form embrace different groups with its
perspective.
1) perfective groups (to come, to break)
2) inchoative groups (begin)
3) momentory groups (drop, catch)
All these groups differ by their descriptive
modifying quantitative character when the
inchoative groups describe the process while the
momentary and perfective ones presuppose its
resultative and define it as quantitively a numeric
amount.
The weak member of the opposition D- doesn`t
oppose the verbs by their semantic stands because
they represent that durational imperfectness which
characterizes the meaning of unaspectness. Thus
the limiting character within the verb system is
represented by the meaning of aspectiveness.
12. Principles of sentence formation.
There exist some models of sentence formation.
1) SpbeO
This model is based on the meaning of being and
centripetal direction when subject and object
create an innally inseperable form (I (predicate)
am a teacher (subject)).
2) SphaveO
This model is based on the meaning of possession
and centrifugal direction when subject and object
create 2 autonomic sentences.
Both the models may be transformed in speech
where their functioning is brought into existence
as the models of impersonal sentences as the
secondary structure.Expressing the
nominativeness determines the syntactical
meaning of the subject , when the subject is
correlated with a denotate of reality there appear
personal sentences.” He has some difficulties in
going on. The one must do his duty. The valley
has some mineral springs.”When the subject has
no correlation with a denotate of reality there
appear non-personal sentences based on
incompatibility (несовместимость). “It`s difficult
for him to go home. One must do one`s duty.
There are some mineral springs in the valley.”The
non-personal sentences like the personal ones are
formed by 2 ways of correlation: quantitative and
qualitative.The personal and impersonal
(безличные) sentences like the personal ones are
formed by the qualitative of correlation and
preserve the meaning of being. “The book is nice.
It is a nice book.”The sentences built up by
quantitative way of correlation preserve the
meaning of possession based on copulation. “The
valley has some mineral springs. There are some
mineral springs in the valley.”The sentences built
up by the subordinate way of correlation preserve
the meaning of modality.“This one must do its
duty. One must do one`s duty.”Difference
between correlation and correctivity.
1) The correlation is not duplicated in correctivity
and it is not an abrupt structure which is filled on
the second level. It is a general schematically
directed model of word order that is centripetal
expressing the relations of possession as those of
quantitative dependence of the part of the whole.
Correctivity is realizing this word order model by
concrete language means that is creating different
types of sentences on the basis of all the
categories inherent in the language and
characteristic of its structure.
2)The dominant meaning of being which
expresses coordination and the meaning of
possession which expresses autonomy are drawn
(стянуты) together in sentences which presuppose
the nominal structure for the initial denotate. The
change of meaning leads to the modification of
syntactic combinability. That`s why any
development of syntactical synonimy is possible
if the correlation of centripetal and centrifugal
kinds is preserved.
13. Function of nominativeness.
The principles of sentence formation are
immediately connected with a meaning of
nominativeness.
The system of cases is that form of word
declension by means of which different shades of
the space location of objects find their reflection
in language. The case system expresses the
change in the objects dislocation due to which it
can be replaced by a preposition, main function of
which is to regulate the space dependence of
nouns.The predicate never determines the special
shift of the subject but on the contrary it itself
obtains an impulse to motion from the subject. No
preposition ever duplicates a subject. There is no
preposition to govern or to substitute the subject.
Since the subject is always used in nominal case a
nominativeness is a phenomenon not correlated to
preposition and independent from the predicate.
Indo-European languages are nominatival in their
structure because the subject is always in nominal
place here. The function of the subject may be
executed by these grammatical classes that have
no case system, whatsoever (infinitiv, adverb,
interjection). This explains the nature of
nominativeness which is not a case form but the
initial element of correlated connection.
The case form establishes the subordinate
relations of special character dependent on the
verb. Nominativeness on the contrary fixes that
initial positive position which serves as a starting
point of further development of thought.
The universalism of the linguistic structure is
often violated as a certain atavism being replaced
by impersonal constructions more vivid and
emotionally saturated (эмоционально
насыщенные).
The first position is occupied by the doer of the
action where the form of nominativeness renders
the idea of special correlation with its temporality.
Irrespective of the form of expression of
nominativeness its function might be carried by an
adverb (quickly doesn`t always mean well) or
sometimes by infinitiv (to smoke is harmful).
While incoding a certain object by linguistic
means a code model consisting of positionallyfixed members is used. Each of the members has
its own linguistic meanings.
Subject as the named object representation is
abstract and should be concretilized by predicate.
In this situation a predicate is a part of the
dynamic representation.
The second position which characterizes a
predicate is more concrete than the first one
because it presupposes that idea of spacial
temporal correlation of the object to the speaker
represented in this abstract quality by its first
position.
The initial understanding of the object creates
statics as that structure of nominativeness which
as a rule is always affirmative.
Usually the list of words with a negative
informativeness is not long in English (departure,
refuse) The vast majority of words used in the
nominative position as some of the definite
informative notions concerning the object are
representing the positive meanings.
The imformative notions not being unchangeable
depend on the following factors:
1) surrounding circumstances where the object
may be represented in its different states
(old, cold) It is a cottage.
2)
our penetrating into the inner structure of the
object that is defined by the general level of
our knowledge of reality (atom, visible,
neutral) It is a scarcely cottage
3) the speaker`s subjective estimation of the
object. It is a hut.
My going home (expresses dynamics) was long
(referes to the past)
In this case the object obtains some additional
qualitative limitation as the indication of time,
quantity, that closes sentence. That is why the
process of nominalization is inseparably
connected with a process of limitation. There are
7 pairs of relations integrated within the frame
work of the sentence.
1) cause and consequence revealed in complex
sentences
2) essence and phenomenon revealed in any
conjunctional sentences of being
3) form and contents revealed in any twomembered sentence
4) necessity and obligation reveales in
sentences with modal elements
5) part and whole elements revealed in any
sentences of possession that presupposes
two relatively autonomic sentences
6) patricularization and generalization revealed
in any sentence of comparison
7) possibility and reality in sentences with the
oblique moods
All these relations characterize not only separate
moment of stage of the development of human
knowledge and language consequently but all the
processes of cognition taken as a whole.
14. Morphemic structure of the word.
Morpheme – is one of the central notions of
grammatical theory, without which no serious
attempt at grammatical study can be made.
Morpheme is the smallest meaningful unit of the
language.
There are may be zero morphemes that is the
absence of morpheme. It indicates a certain
meanings (book-books).Zero morpheme indicates
singular form, s-morpheme plurality.
In traditional grammar the study of the morpheme
was conducted in the light of 2 criteria (positional
and semantic). The combination of these criteria
gives us a classification of morphemes.
According to their position-can be
prepositional(prefix),central
(root)&postpositional(suffixes&inflexions).
According to semantic criteria roots are the
bearers of meaning. Prefix&suffixes-have lexicosemantic function.
Inflexions have no lexical meaning or function,
however an inflexion morpheme can get a lexical
meaning in some special cases (colourcolours//custom-customs)-lexicalization.
Morphemes
can
be:
-free&bound(Bound
morphemes cannot form words by themselves,
they are identified only as component segmental
parts of words. On the contrary, free morphemes
can build up words by themselves, i/e/ can be
used “freely”.e.g. handful – the root hand is a free
morpheme, the suffix –ful is a bound morpheme.)
-overt &covert (Overt morphemes are genuine,
explicit morphemes building up words; the covert
morpheme is identified as a contrastive absence of
morpheme expressing a certain function. The
notion of covert morpheme coincides with the
notion of zero morpheme in the oppositional
description of grammatical categories.
e.g. clock-s - 2 morphemes (a lexical morpheme
and a grammatical one)
clock-Ø – 2 morphemes (the overt root and the
covert (implicit) zero morpheme Ø)
-segmental&suprasegmental
(Supra-segmental
morphemes are intonation contours, accents,
pauses.)
-additive (Additive morphemes are outer
grammatical suffixes, as they are opposed to the
absence of morphemes in grammatical alternation:
e.g. look-ed; small-er
On the basis of linear characteristics, “continuous
(linear)” morphemes and “discontinuous”
morphemes are distinguished.
The discontinuous morpheme is a 2-element
grammatical unit, which is the analytical from
comprising an auxiliary word and a grammatical
suffix:e.g. be … ing – is going (continuous)
have … en – has gone (perfect)
be … en – is taken (passive)
Continuous morpheme is uninterruptedly
expressed.
15. Categorical structure of the word.
Notional words possess some morphemic features
expressing grammatical meanings. These
meanings are very abstract, very general.
The grammatical form presents a division of the
word on the principle of expressing a certain
grammatical meaning.
The most general notions reflecting the most
general properties of phenomena are referred to in
logic as «categorical notions», or «categories».
The categorial meaning (f.e. grammatical number)
unites the individual meanings of the correlated
paradigmatic forms (f.e. singular-plural) and is
exposed through them.
As for the grammatical category itself it presents
the same as the grammatical «form», a unity of
form and meaning and constitutes a certain
signemic system.
The ordered set of grammatical forms expressing
a categorial function constitutes a paradigm. The
paradigmatic correlations are called grammatical
oppositions.
Three main qualitative types of oppositions were
established in phonology: privative, gradual, and
equipollent. By the number of members they
were divided into binary and more than binary.
The means employes for building up memberforms of categorial oppositions are traditionally
divided into synthetical and analytical;
accordingly, the grammatical forms themselves
are classed into synthetical and analytical too.
Synthetical grammatical forms are based on inner
inflexion, outer inflexion, and suppletivity. From
the point of view of referent relation, grammatical
categories should be divided into immanent
(categories innate for a given lexemic classsubstantive-pronominal person, substantive
number, tense of the verb, the comparison of the
adjectives) and reflective categories (categories of
a secondary, derivative semantic value-verbal
person, verbal number).
Another essential division of grammatical
categories is based on the changeability factor of
the exposed feature. The feature can be constant
(gender, which divides the class of English nouns
into non-human (It), human male (he), human
female (she), human common gender names
(he/she) or variable (substantive number
(singular- plural), degrees of comparison).
16. Grammatical classes of the words.
The words of languages, depending on various
formal and semantic features, are divided into
grammatically relevant sets or classes. These
classes are called parts of speech. In modern
linguistics parts of speech are discriminated on
the basis of three criteria: semantic (
presupposes the generalized meaning), formal (
shows inflexional and derivational features),
functional (syntactic role).
According to these criteria words on the upper
level are divided into notional (noun,,
adjective, numeral, pronoun, verb, adverb) and
functional (article, preposition, conjunction,
particle, modal word, interjection), and then
changeable and unchangeable.
Each part of speech after its identification is
subdivided into subseries.
Thus, nouns are subcategorized into proper
(Mary) and common (girl), animate (man) and
inanimate (earth), countable (coin) and
uncountable (news), concrete (stone) and
abstract (love).
Verbs are subcategorized into fully predicative
(walk) and partially predicative (can), transitive
(take, put) – intransitive (live, stay), actional
(write) and statal (sleep), factive (roll) –
evaluative (hate).
But this three-criteria principle of dividing the
words into grammatical classes faces some
difficulties. Some lexemes have morphological
status of notional words, but are essentially
distinguished from them them by playing the
role of grammatical mediators in phrases and
sentences (modal verbs with their equivalents –
suppletive fillers, auxiliary verbs, aspective
verbs). So the so-called syntactic classification
was established. It is more important and more
universal because it shows the distribution
between different sets in accord with their
functional role.
This classification is based on the study of
words` combinability by means of substitution
testing. The testing results develop the standard
model of four main positions of notional
words: noun. Verb, adjective, adverb. Pronouns
are included into the corresponding positional
classes as their substitutes. The other words are
treated as function words of various syntactic
values.
17. Noun: general characteristics of noun
and gender.
The Noun is a word expressing substance in the
widest sense of the word.
Noun has a categorial meaning of thingness, Its
functions are determined by its semantic. In the
sentence it can perform subjective, objective,
attributive, adverbial & predicative functions.
Apart from the sentence-part functions the
noun is characterized by the types of
combinability:
-Prepositional with other nouns, verbs,
adjectives, adverbs. Ex:An entrance to the
house.
-possessive combinability ex:The President’s
speech
-With one another by sheer contact ex:Film
festival
The existance of this combination (3 types) is a
big problem for many scholars. How to treat
them? Weather it`s one separate word or a
word group.
The N is characterized by a set of formal
features. It has it’s typical suffixes, stem
models, conversion patterns. Not all scholars
are unanimous on the number of grammatical
category of the noun.
Classification of nouns:
1.Proper&common noun (the base of this
division is “type of nomination”
2.Animate&Inanimate(the base of this division
is form existance)
3.Human&Non-human(based on personal
quality)
4.Countable&Uncountable (quantative
structure)
The problem of the category of gender:
There is a constant contradiction between the
presentation of gender in English.
Blokh:The category of gender is expressed in
English by the obligatory correlation of nouns
with the personal pronouns of the 3rd
person.It’s strictly oppositional, formed by 2
oppositions hierarchically related.1.This
opposition functions in the whole set of nouns
dividing them into person (human) (strong) and
non-person (non-human) nouns (weak).
2. The other opposition functions in the subset
of person nouns only dividing them into
masculine and feminine. The cases of
reductions:1.Non-person & their substitute are
used in the positions of neutralization.
2.Great number of nouns are capable for
expressing both female & masculine person
genders. Ex:person,parent,friend have a
common gender. In plural all gendersneutralized.
Nouns can show the sex of their referents
lexically ex:boy-friend,girl-friend or with the
help of suffixes –ess (mistress). Categories of
gender in English is semantic because it
reflects the actual features of the named
objects, but the semantic of the category
doesn’t in the least make it into nongrammatical.
18. Category of number.
A noun is said to be in the singular number
when it denotes one person or thing; it is said
to be in the plural number when it denotes
more than one person or thing.
So the category of number is expressed by the
binary private opposition. The strong member
is the pl. and the weak member is the singular.
The productive ways of expressing the number
the morpheme –S.
The productive way of expressing the singular
is by zero morpheme. The other ways are
vowel interchange men-man (replacive
morpheme). The archaic suffix en-oxoxen,child-children and also individual
singular and plural suffixes of borrowed nouns:
formula-formulae.
The cases of homonymy (fish-fish)
The semantic nature of the difference between
singular and the plural presents difficulty of
interpretation ex: three houses and three hours.
Three houses-are three separate object and
three hours are a continuous period of time as
well as three miles, three acres. Here we
distinguish “discrete plural” and “plural of
measure” ex: water-waters of the Atlantic.
Here we refer to a geographical idea, while the
water of the Atlantic refers to it’s physical or
chemical properties. Here we see an additional
difference of meaning. Talking about the
number we’re to mention the process of
lexicalization, the essence of which is
developing a completely a new meaning of the
noun in the plural ex: custom-customs.
We must consider 2 types of noun - Pluralia
Tantum & Singularia Tantum.
Among the PT are the nouns: trousers, scissors,
etc. The direct opposition of PT is ST. Among
this we must note some nouns denoting
material substance, milk, butter and names of
abstract notions-peace, usefulness with this
nouns the predicate verb is always singular.
There exist exceptions when the above mention
nouns may have a plural form ex; wine-wines
(to denote several special kinds of
wine),beauty-beauties (of nature) when we
mean the objects exhibiting this quality ex;
iron-irons
According to Blokh we should discern absolute
plural, the absolute plural form is peculiar to
the uncountable subclass of PT nouns. The
absolute plural cannot directly combine with
numerals. The absolute plural by way of
functional oppositional reduction can be
represented in 3 ways:
1.In countable nouns having the form of the
singular ex: the family were gathered round the
table.
2.In countable nouns having the form of the
plural ex: I lit cigarette after cigarette.
3.In common countable nouns used n repetition
groups.
19.The category of case. The problem of
article determination.
Ilyish:Case is the category of a noun
expressing relations between the thing denoted
by the noun and other things, or properties, or
actions, and manifested by some formal sign in
the noun itself (e.g. inflection, zeromorpheme).
The problem of case in ME nouns is one of the
most disputed problems in English grammar.
The views on the subject differ widely.
Views: The number of approaches is due to a
difference in the interpretation of the category
of case. LIMITED CASE THEORY: Ilyish
doesn’t recognize any case expressed by nonmorphological means  preposition + Noun is
not a case form  English nouns have 2 cases:
common case (e.g. father) and genitive case
(e.g. father’s);
POSITIONAL CASE THEORY: The number
of cases in English is more than 2 (3, 4, 5 …);
the case may be expressed by prepositions or
by word order;
Curme: PREPOSITIONAL CASE THEORY –
there are as many cases as there are
prepositions (e.g. of Peter, to peter, with
Peter…etc)
Хаймович/Роговская:
The category of case of nouns is the system of
opposemes (girl-girl’s) showing the relations of
the noun to other words in speech.
Case is one of those categories which show the
close connection (a) between language and
speech, (b) between morphology and syntax.
a.the members of the case opposeme JohnJohn’s are united paradigmatically on the basis
of their syntagmatic differences.
b.Though case is a morphological category it
has a distinct syntactical significance. Common
case  the functions of subject and object;
possessive case  the function of an attribute.
The category of article determination.
Blokh: The semantic purpose of the article
is to specify the nounal referent, to define
it in the most general way, without any
explicitly expressed contrasts.
In the absence of a determiner, the use of the
article with the noun is quite obligatory, in so
far as the cases of non-use of the article are
subject to no less definite rules than the use of
it.
??? Is article a purely auxiliary element of a
special grammatical form of the noun which
functions as a component of a definite
morphological category, or is it a separate
word, i.e. a lexical unit in the determiner word
set, if of a more abstract meaning than other
determiners.
??? Can “article + noun” be a form of the
noun?
If we agree that the group “article + noun” is an
analytical form of the verb we shall have to set
up a grammatical category in the noun which is
expresses by one or the other article or by its
absence. That category might be called
DETERMINATION. In this case we could also
find a “zero article”.If we stick to the view that
the group is a peculiar type of phrase, no “zero
article” is possible.
The role of articles in actual division of the
sentence.
The door opened and the young man came
in./The door opened and a young man came in.
In the 2nd case we can see that the central point
of the sentence is a young man, which is new
( the person who came in proved to be a
young man). While in the 1st sentence the
central point is that he came in. The central
point corresponds to the semantic predicate, or
the RHEME.
 the indefinite article expresses what is new,
and the definite article expresses what is
known already, or at least what is not presented
as new.
20. Non-finite and finite verbs.
Non-finite verbs are the forms of the verb
intermediary in many of their lexico-grammatical
features between the verb and the non-processual
parts of speech.
The processual meaning is exposed by them in a
substantive or adjectiva-adverbial interpretation:
they render processes as peculiar kinds of
substances and properties. They are formed by
special morphemic elements which do not express
either grammatical time or mood (the most
specific finite verb categories). They can be
combined with verbs like non-processual lexemes
(perfoming non-verbal functions in the sentence),
and they can be combined with non-processual
lexemes like verbs (perfoming verbal functions in
the sentence).
The English non-finite verbs include 4 forms
distinctly differing from one another within the
general non-finite verbs system: the infinitive, the
gerund, the present participle, the past participle.
The infinitive is the non-finite form of the verb
which combines the properties of the verb with
those of the noun, serving as the verbal name of a
process. It should be considered as the head-form
of the whole paradigm of the verb.
The infinitive is used in 3 fundamentally different
types of functions:
1) as a notional, self-positional syntactic part of
the sentence
2) as the notional constituent of a complex
verbal predicate built up around a predicator
verb
3)
as the notional constituent of a finite
conjugation (спряжение) form of the verb
In the sentence the infinitive perfoms the
functions of all types of notional sentence-parts
(subject, object, predicate, attribute, adv.
modifier).
English infinitive exists in 2 presentation forms.
One of them is distinguished by the pre-positional
marker to. This form is called traditionally toinfinitive. The other form doesn`t employ the
marker to. It is zero-suffixed form. It is called the
bare-infinitive form ( with modal verbs, let, make
help, know, had better, would rather, relativeinducive why).
The gerund is the non-finite form of the verb
which combines the properties of the verb with
those of the noun. As different from the infinitive
and similar to the noun the gerund can be
modified by a noun in the possessive case or its
pronominal equivalents (expressing the subject of
the verbal process) and it can be used with
prepositions.
The gerund can not be a head-form of the verbal
lexeme because it can not perform the function of
the paradigmatic verbal head-form because it is
more detached from the finite verb than the
infinitive semantically, it doesn`t join in the
conjugation of the finite verb. Also it is a suffixal
form, which makes it less generalized than the
infinitive. Finally it is less definite from the
lexico-grammatical point of view.
The gerundial paradigm of the non-objective verb
includes 2 forms: going-having gone.
The perfect forms are used only in semantically
strong positions laying special emphasis on the
meaningful categorial content of the form.
The present participle is the non-finite form of
the verb which combines the properties of the
verb with those of the adjective and adverb,
serving as the qualifying-processual name. The
present participle has no categorial time
distinctions, and the attribute present is not
explanatory. It is used from force of tradition.
The present participle has its own place in the
general paradigm of the verb, different from that
of the past participle, being distinguished by the
corresponding set of characterization features.
Present participle is triple by its lexicogrammatical properties which is displayed in its
combinability (with nouns expressing the object
of an action; with nouns expressing the subject of
the action; with modifying adverbs; with auxiliary
finite verbs) and its syntactic functions
(predicative, attribute, the adverbial modifier).
The past participle is the non-finite form of the
verb which combines the properties of the verb
with those of the adjective, serving as the
qualifying-processual name. The past participle is
a single form having no paradigm of its own. By
way of paradigmatic correlation with the present
participle it conveys implicitly the categorial
meaning of the perfect and the passive. But it has
no distinct combinability features or syntactic
function features specially characteristic of the
adverb. Thus the main self-positional functions of
the past participle in the sentence are those of the
attribute and the predicative.
The finite forms of the verb express the
processual relations of substances and phenomena
making up the situation reflected in the sentence.
These forms are associated with one another and
intricate system. The finite verb is directly
connected with the structure of the sentence as a
whole. And through the working of its categories
it is immediately related to such sentenceconstitutive factors as morphological forms of
predication, communication purposes, subjective
modality, subject-object relation, gradation of
probabilities.
7. Category of number in verbs.
The category of number in verbs is
expressed uniformly by as “being-posessionvolution”
The verb has some peculiarities as compared
with the expression of the category of
number in the static system. It has indirect
character. These difernces are brought by
the differ.idea of the object. 1) immediately
numerical in nouns when the quant.essence
of the object is fixed. Indirect numerical in
verbs when the stress follows the space
scope embarrased by the acting object.
2)Numerical inconcretness that is absence of
clear indication of some def.quant. supplies
by further division into sing./plur. The
difference between the sing. and plur. of the
verb referres to the space when the action is
performed by many doers. The difference
b/w sing. and plur. of verbs is a concrete
character in sing.and abstract in plur. which
in nouns can also comprise abstractness.
9. Category of grammar direction.
The grammar inventory of English includes
the particle «to» which is based between
static and dynamic system. (I want to play. I
gave to you. Turn to the left.)
It serves to express the meaning of:
3) Infinitival relations
4) Dativeness
5) Territorial direction
But in general all of them can be united by
the category of meaning of grammar
direction.
Infinitive is represented by the ind. Inf.,
perf.inf and cont.inf. (to write, to have
written, to have been writing, to be written).
In each form the meaning of indefinetness of
the inf. contradicts the def.character of the
action development, which is either
unlimited or limited (perfect). There is a big
difference in representing aspect and time
relations. The action expressed by the inf.in
any aspect of pronunciation reveals the
process not in its full dynamic development
but the one partially transferred by the
sphere of stability which is the result of the
nominal system influence. In the temporal
meaning inf.can`t be determined by the
predicate form of the verb which it is usually
connected with. In the case of the indef.inf.
the action can be given only after realizing
the act of intention concentrated within the
predicate (I decide he thinks we prepare).
It`s not determined by the frames of futurity.
It expresses not only action but the direction
of its perspective development. Within the
sphere of the ind.inf.the uncertainty gets
quite an unambiguous perspective direction.
The use of the inf. with the verbs of volition
and application is connected with the modal
character of these verbs (I expect to go
there-volition). The stable character of
processeness is revealed by the inf.form
indicating the sequence of 2 combined
phenomena. The subjective volition as the
1st act of the thought expression and its
realization as the act that follows or as the
2nd phase of 2 combined phenomena.
The admission of to with the modal verbs
isn`t occasional (she can not do it). Modality
as the cat.of subj. Intention has very
directive character.
The verbs to be and to have are used in the
modal meaning and obligatory combined
with to. It is impossible to use the inf.after
them without to because we have to
underline the direction of movement from
one phase to another. (She was to do smth.,
she has to come-the direction is used due to
the particle to).
Perf.inf. form is combined with a perf.form.
It preserves its directive specification,
underlines opposite line of the temp.
Development into present to past. The
direction itself must have been appeared
historically as the indicator of movement
from object to inf. Past becomes def. In this
respect. The meaning of direction becomes
generalized categorial notion. It finds its
expression in the group of words or when
refer to the sphere of future.
21. Category of tense, number and person
in the verb system.
Ilyish: The tense category is universally
recognized. The category of tense is a verbal
category which reflects the objective
category of time and expresses on this
background the relations between the time
of the action and the time of the utterance.
 Past, Present and Future.
Some doubts have been expressed about
the existence of a future tense in
English. O.Jespersen believes that shall
and will preserve some of their original
meaning (shall an element of obligation,
will an element of volition)
It is also well known that a present
tense form and present continuous may
also be used when the action belongs to
the future (as planned action).
Besides the 6 forms of the English verb
there are 2 more, namely, the future-inthe-past and the future-continuous-inthe-past. These forms are used chiefly in
subordinate clauses depending on a
main clause having its predicate verb in
one of the past tense, however they can
be found in independent clauses as well.
Blokh: 2 stages of the grammatical
expression of verbal time:
I.Absolutive stage: Category of primary time
(present & past)
II. Relative stage:category of prospective
time (non-future(non-afteraction) & future
(afteraction)
The problem of the perfect forms.
Ilyish:The ME perfect forms have been the
subject of a lengthy discussion which has
not so far brought about a definite result.
1.The category of perfect is a peculiar tense
category, i.e. a category which should be
classed in the same list as the categories
“present” and “past” (O.Jespersen).
2.The category of perfect is a peculiar aspect
category, i.e. one which should be given a
place in the list comprising “common
aspect” and “continuous aspect” (prof.
G.Vorontsova)  “retrospective”,
“resultative”, “successive’.
3. The category of perfect is neither one of
tense, nor one of aspect but a specific
category different from both (prof.
A.Smirnitsky). He took the perfect to be a
means of expressing the category of “time
relation”.
The categories of person and number are
closely connected with each other. It is
conditioned by 1)their situational semantics
2) by their direct and immediate relation to
tje synt.unit expressing the subject as the
functional part of the sentence. The
expression of the category of person is
confined to the sing.form of the verb in the
pres.tense in the indicative mood and
singularly presented in the future tense. In
the pres. Tense the expression of the cat.of
person is divided into 3 peculiar systems:
1)includes the modal verbs that have no
personal inflexions (can, will) 2) is made up
by the unique verbal lexeme be 3) presents
the regular expression of person
The verb has some peculiarities as compared
with the expression of the category of
number in the static system. It has indirect
character. These difernces are brought by
the differ.idea of the object. 1) immediately
numerical in nouns when the quant.essence
of the object is fixed. Indirect numerical in
verbs when the stress follows the space
scope embarrased by the acting object.
2)Numerical inconcretness that is absence of
clear indication of some def.quant. supplies
by further division into sing./plur. The
difference between the sing. and plur. of the
verb referres to the space when the action is
performed by many doers. The difference
b/w sing. and plur. of verbs is a concrete
character in sing.and abstract in plur. which
in nouns can also comprise abstractness.
22. The category of aspect and mood within
the verb system.
The aspective meaning of the verb differs from
the temp. Meaning. It reflects the inherent
mode of the ralizatin of the process irrespective
of its timing. The aspective meaning can be inbuilt in the sem. Structure of the verb forming
an invariable category.. It can also be
represented in variable gramm.categories. The
aspective cat.of development is constituted by
the opposition of the cont.forms of the verb to
the non-cont. or indef. Forms. The marked
member is the cont. which is built by the
auxiliary verb be + the pres. part. of the
conjugated verb (be…ing).- the girl was
smiling. He was smoking. The cat.of
retrospective coordination is constituted by the
opposition of the perf.forms of the verb to the
non-perf. The marked member is the
perf.which is built up by the auxiliary have in
combination with the past part.of the
conjugated verb. (have…en) Granny has taken
her newspaper.
The category of MOOD expresses the character
of connection between the process denoted by
the verb and the actual reality, either presenting
the process as a fact that really happened,
happens or will happen, or treating it as an
imaginary phenomenon, i.e. the subject of a
hypothesis (предположение), speculation
(размышление), desire.
OPPOSITION 1.Strong member (Forms of
oblique mood meaning,i.e. those of unreality)
2.Weak member (Forms of direct mood
meaning,i.e.those of reality)
Division of moods:1.indicative (actually taking
place)2.conditional (merely imaginary)One of
the important differences between the
indicative and the other moods is that the
meaning of “tense” does not go with the
meanings of subjunctive mood and imperative
mood. “Tense” reflects the real time of a real
action. The imperative and the subjunctive
moods represent the action as real, but as
desired or imagined, and the notions of real
time are discarded.
Number of MOODS:
-Ilyish 3 MOODS (indicative, subjunctive,
imperative)- meaningform;
-M.Deutschbein: 16 MOODS  functional
approach;
-Prof.
Smirnitsky
(+
O.S.Akhmanova,
M.Gashina, N.Vasilevskaya): 6 MOODS
(indicative,
imperative,
subjunctive
I,
subjunctive II, suppositional, conditional) formmeaning;
-L.S.Barhudarov,
D.A.
Shteling:
2
MOODS (indicative, subjunctive);
-G.N.Vorontsova: 4 MOODS (indicative,
optative speculative, presumptive).
Subjunctive MOOD includes forms
homonymous with Past and Past Perfect,
but they differ in time correlation and
absence of time as such.
23. The characteristics of adjective.
Adjective is a part of speech characterized by the
following typical features:
1.The lexico-grammatical meaning of “attributes
(of substantives)”. By attributes we mean different
properties of substantives, such as their size,
colour, position in space, material, psychic state
of persons, etc.
2.The morphological category of the degrees of
comparison.
3.The characteristic combinability with nouns (a
beautiful girl), link verbs (…is clever), adverbs,
mostly those of degree (a very clever boy), the socalled “prop word” one (the grey one).
4.The stem-building affixes –ful, -less, -ish, -ous,
-ive, -ic, un-, pre-, in-, etc.
5.Its functions of an attribute and a predicative
complement.
Blokh:The adjective expresses the categorial
semantics of property of a substance  each
adjective used in text presupposes relation to
some noun. Unlike nouns, adjectives do not
possess a full nominative value.
Blokh:All the adjectives are traditionally divided
into 2 large subclasses: qualitative and relative.
Relative adjectives express such properties of a
substance as are determined by the direct relation
of the substance to some other substance (e.g.
wood – a wooden hut, history – a historical
event).
Qualitative adjectives, as different from relative
ones, denote various qualities of substances which
admit of a quantitative estimation, i.e. of
establishing their correlative quantitative measure.
The measure of a quality can be estimated as high
or low, adequate or inadequate, sufficient or
insufficient, optimal or excessive (e.g. a difficult
task – a very difficult task).
 The adjective functions may be
grammatically divided into ‘evaluative’
and ‘specificative’. One and the same
adjective, irrespective of its being relative
or qualitative, can be used either in one or
the other function.
e.g. good is basically qualitative, but used
as a grading term in teaching it acquires
the specificative value (bad, satisfactory,
good, excellent).
The category of degrees of
comparis:Хаймович/Роговская:
The category of the degrees of comparison of
adjectives is the system of opposemes (long –
longer – longest) showing qualitative distinctions
of qualities. More exactly it shows whether the
adjective denotes the property of some substance
absolutely, or relatively as a higher or the highest
amount of the property in comparison with that of
some other substances.
 ‘positive’, ‘comparative’ and ‘superlative’
degrees.
The positive degree is not marked. We may speak
of a zero morpheme. The comparative and
superlative degrees are built up either
synthetically (by affixation or suppletivity) or
analytically (with the help of word-morphemes
more and most), which depends mainly on the
structure of the stem.
A new objection is raised in the case of the
superlative degree. In the expression a most
interesting theory the indefinite article is used
whereas a prettiest child is impossible  there is
some difference between the synthetic superlative
and the analytical one.
One must not forget that more and most are not
only word-morphemes of comparison. They can
be notional words. They are polysemantic and
polyfunctional words. One of the meanings of
most is ‘very, exceedingly’ (a most interesting
book).
The notional word more in the meaning ‘to
greater extent’ can also be used to modify
adjectives, as in It’s more grey than brown. More
grey here is a combination of words.
The positive degree does not convey the idea of
comparison. Its meaning is absolute. Jespersen:
the positive degree is, a matter of fact, negative in
relation to comparison.
The comparative degree and the superlative
degree are both relative in meaning (Peter is older
than Mary – Peter is not old).
Smirnitsky: thinks that there is good ground to
speak of 2 forms of comparison: the positive
degree and the relative degree which exists in 2
varieties – the comparative degree and the
superlative degree.
Statives.
Blokh:Among the words signifying properties of a
nounal referent there is a leximic set which claims
to be recognied as a separate part of speech, a
class of words different form the adjectives in its
class-forming features. These are words built up
by the prefix a- and denoting different states,
mostly of temporary duration. Here belong
lexemes like afraid, agog, adrift, ablaze. They
called the newly identified part of speech the
“category of state“ (Russian words: тепло, зябко,
одиноко, радостно, жаль, лень).
Substantivization of adjectives. Adjectivization
of nouns.
Blokh:Among the substantivized adjectives there
is a set characterized by hybrid lexico-
grammatical features. On analogy of verbids these
words might be called “adjectivids”.
The adjectivids fall into 2 main grammatical
subgroups:
1.pluralia tantum (the English, the rich, the
unemployed) sets of people
2.singularia tantum (the invisible, the abstract)
abstract ideas
24. The characteristics of adverbs.
The adverb is defined as a word expressing
either property of an action, or property of
another property, or circumstances in which an
action occurs. They are characterized by a
combinability with verbs, adjectives and words
of adverbial nature. The function – to express
differ. adv.modifiers or the heading of
situation-determinants. In accord with their
word-building structure adverbs may be simple
(here,there,so,quite,why)
and
derived
(slowly,sideways,afterwards,away).
Adverbs are commonly divided into qualitative
(express immediate non-graded qualities of
actions and other qualities – bitterly),
quantitative (include words of degree. These
units express quality measure or gradational
evaluation of qualities. There are some sets: 1)
adverbs of degree – very, little, utterly 2)
adverbs of excessive degree – too, awfully 3)
adverbs of unexpected degree – surprisingly,
amazingly 4) adverbs of moderate degree –
rather 5) of low degree – a bit 6) of
approximate degree – almost)
and
circumstancial (are divided into notional –
adverbs of time (twice) and place (today, ever)
and functional – now, here, how)
25. Syntagmatic connections of words.
Performing their semantic functions words in an
utterance form various syntagmatic connections
with one another. One should distinguish b/w
synt.groupings of notional words alone,
synt.groupings of notional words with functional
words, and synt.groupings of functional words
alone.
Combinations of a notional word with a functional
word are equivalent to separate words by their
nominative function (in a low voice, and Jimmy).
These combinations are called formative ones.
Groupings of notional words fall into two
mutually opposite types by their grammatical and
semantic properties.
1) are constituted by words related to one
another on an equal rank (prose and poetry,
he or she, playing, chatting, laughing) – with
conjunctions or without them
2) are formed by words which are syntactically
unequal (is achieved by differ.forms of the
word – agreement, government, connective
words – prepositions, word-order.
The predicative connection uniting the subject and
the predicate builds up the basis of the sentence.
The domination of the subject over the predicate
is exposed by the reflective character of the verbal
category o person and of number.
So, complete predicative connections and
incomplete predicative connections (semipredicative, potentially-predicative) are
distinguished.
The completive one-way connection of words is
subordinative. All the completive connections fall
into 2 main groups: objective and qualifying.
Objective connections reflect the relation of the
object to the process. Qualifying connections are
divided into attributive and adverbial connections.
26. The general characteristics of sentence.
The sentence is the immediate integral unit of
speech built up of words according to a definite
syntactic pattern and distinguished by a
contextually relevant communicative purpose.
Thus, it is more preferable to describe a sentence
than to define it. The main peculiar features of the
sentence are: integrity, syntactic independence,
grammatical
completeness,
semantic
completeness, communicative completeness,
communicative
functioning,
predicativity,
modality, intonational completeness.
Predicativity is a syntactical category. It is
actualized reference to reality. Logical
understanding: combination of 2 parts of
proposition. Formally syntactic understanding:
relations of the structural components of the
sentence (subject and predicate). Semantic
approach: correlation of the contents of the
utterance with the situation. The latter is most
popular.
Modality is a semantic category. It is broader a
notion than predicativity, it is revealed both in
grammatical elements of language and its lexical,
purely nominative elements. Prof.Pocheptsov:
predicativity is mood plus tense (predicativity is
broader than modality)
Classification of sentences
1. According to structural features: simple and
composite; two-member and one- member
sentences. Elliptical and one-member sentences:
e.g. Marvelous! Horrible! How very interesting!
e.g. No birds singing at the dawn (Strong
resemblance to 2 member sentences).
e.g. I saw him there. Yesterday (parselation).
2. According to the purpose of the utterance:
declarative,
interrogative,
imperative,
exclamatory, ? optative. Prof.Ilyish: before
dividing sentences into 3 classes we should divide
them into emotional and non-emotional and
within emotional we can establish 4 classes.
The strictly declarative sentence immediately
expresses a certain proposition, that is why the
actual division of the declarative sentence
presents itself in the most developed and complete
form. The rheme of the declarative sentence
makes up the center of some statement as such.
The strictly imperative sentence does not express
any statement or fact, i.e. any proposition proper.
It is only based on a proposition, without
formulating it directly. Namely, the proposition
underlying the imperative sentence is reversely
contrasted against the content of the expressed
inducement. It is so because an urge to do
something (i.e. affirmative inducement) is based
on a supposition that something is not done. An
urge not to do something (i.e. negative
inducement) is founded on the supposition that
something is done or may be done. E.g Don’t talk
about them (They talk about them). Thus, the
rheme of the imperative sentence expresses the
informative nucleus not of an explicit proposition,
but of an inducement – a wanted or unwanted
action.
The actual division of the strictly interrogative
sentences is uniquely different from declarative
and imperative sentences. It expresses an inquiry
about information which the speaker does not
possess. Therefore the rheme of the interrogative
sentence, as the nucleus of the inquiry, is
informationally open (gaping). Its function
consists only in marking the rhematic position in
the response sentence and programming the
content of the rheme in accord with the nature of
the inquiry. The thematic part of the answer is
usually zeroed since it’s already expressed in the
question: e.g. How are you? – Fine, thanks.
27.Actual division of the sentence.
It is well known fact that the notional parts of the
sentence form together the nominative meaning of
the sentence. The division of the sentence into
notional parts can be called the nominative division a
long side of nominative division. The idea of the
actual division has been put forward in theoretical
linguistics. Its purpose is to reveal the correlative
significance of the sentence parts from the point of
view of their actual informative role in an utterance.
The main components of the actual division are the
“theme” and the “rheme”.
Theme expresses the starting point of the
communication.
Rheme expresses the basic informative part of the
communication .
Between the theme and the rheme are positioned
intermediary parts of the actual division. The theme
may or may not coincide with the subject of the
sentence. The rheme with a predicate. The actual
division finds its full expression only in a concrete
context of speech. If it is stylistically neutral
construction the theme is the subject and the rheme
is the predicate and this kind of actual division is
direct. The actual division in which the rheme is
expressed by the subject is inverted.
- The means of expressing the rheme :
1.Lexical meanings – particles (only,even)
2.Logical stress3.Change of syntactic structure (It was he who did it)
4.Passive voice.
- Means of expressing theme
1.Definite article.
2.Word order.
The actual division is an active means of expressing
functional meaning.
И.Ф.Вардуаль: Division which presents the
‘basic item’ and the ‘nucleus of the message’,
‘theme’ and ‘rheme’, ‘given’ and ‘new’ was
called by V.Mathesius “the actual division of the
sentence” as distinguished from its “formal
division”. Actual division is the result of the
influence of context and situation.
Intonation is a very important means of actual
division.
К.Г.Крушельницкая/А.В. де Грот: actual
division is the reflection of the speaker’s attitude
towards what is said. This point of view is less
acceptable.
The point of the actual division of the sentence is in
the lingual limitation of the amount of information
carried by the message.
28. Communicative types of sentences.
The sentence is a communicative unit, so the primary
classification should be based on the communicative
principle. This principle is formulated in traditional
grammar as the purpose of communication.
In accord with the purpose of communication 3
cardinal
sentence-types
are
distinguished:
declarative, imperative, interrogative. These types
stand in strict opposition to one another. The
declarative sentences express a statement, either
affirmative or negative. The imperative sentence
expresses inducement, either affirmative or negative.
It urges the listener in the form of request or
command to perform or not perform a certain action.
The interrogative sentence expresses a question, a
request for information wanted by the speaker from
the listener.
Classification by Fries: 1) oral responses-greetings,
calls, questions 2) action responses-requests or
commands 3) statements – i see, yes.
Another type of sentences is recognized in the theory
of syntax, exclamatory sentence. It couldn`t be
placed on the same level with these three types,
because it didn`t possess any complete set of
qualities. Each of the cardinal communicative
sentence can be represented in the 2 variants – nonexclamatory and exclamatory.
30. The composite sentence.
There is much more to be said about the complex
sentences than about the compound. The semantic
relations which can be expressed by subordination
are much more numerous and more varied than with
co-ordination, e.g. time, place, concession, purpose,
etc.
Types of complex sentences: The notions of
declarative, interrogative, imperative, and
exclamatory sentence appear to be applicable to
some types of complex sentences as well.
Classification:
1.According to the functional principle we
distinguish object, attributive, adverbial clauses, etc.
2.According to the categorial principle
subordinate clauses are divided into 3 categorial
semantic
groups:
substantive-nominal,
qualification-nominal and adverbial.
The two classifications are mutually complementary:
- clauses of primary nominal positions (subject,
predicative, object clauses);
- clauses of secondary nominal positions (attributive
clauses);
- clauses of adverbial positions
3.According to the degree of self-dependence of
clauses complex sentences are divided into
monolythic and segregative sentence structures.
Monolythic complex sentences are based on
obligatory subordinative connections of clauses,
whereas segregative complex sentences are based on
optional subordinative connections.
The 2 main types of connection of clauses in a
composite sentence are subordination and
coordination. By coordination clauses are arranged
as units of syntactically equal rank, i.e. equipotently.
The leading clause and a sequential clause (He came
and we had coffee. We had coffee and he came).By
subordination they are arranged as units of unequal
rank, one being categorically dominated by the other.
Besides the classical types of coordination and
subordination of clauses, we find another case of
construction of a composite sentence. When the
connection between the clauses combined in a
polypredicative unit is extremely loose, placing the
sequential clause in a syntactically detached position.
In this loosely connected composite sentence the
information expressed by the sequential clause is
presented as an afterthought, an idea that comes to
the speaker’s mind after the completion of the
foregoing utterance. This kind of connection is
called cumulation. Its formal sign is the tone of
completion. In writing it is a semifinal mark, such as
a semicolon, a dash, sometimes a series of periods.
Continuative cumulation: He did his job in the office
without any fuss; he answered questions in the
House: he made a couple of speeches. Parenthetical
cumulation: Your story, you know, showed such
breadth and depth of thought.
Compound sentences:
Form the semantico-syntactic point of view there are
2 basic types of connection:
1.Marked coordinative connection – copulative,
causal, resultative, adversative, disjunctive, e.g. We
cannot go upstairs for we are too tired.
2.Unmarked coordinative connection - is realized by
the coordinative connector “and” and also
asyndetically (copulative, enumerative, causal,
resultative relations), e.g. Time passed, and she came
to no conclusions. We cannot go upstairs, we are too
tired.
Opened
constructions
are
copulative
and
enumerative. They are used in narrations in literary
texts as a descriptive means.
Closed type of compound sentences presupposes
some kind of finalization. Conjunctions AND and
BUT.
The problem of communication types:
There are compound sentences consisting of
clauses belonging to different communication
types. In this case it is impossible to state to
what type the compound sentence as a whole
belongs.
e.g. These came nearer than most to meaning
something to her, but what? (declarative +
interrogative)
 Can we call a compound sentence a sentence at
all? according to communication type – NO
There is theory on the unity of communication type,
which recognizes compound sentences as a special
sentence type.
Compound sentences consist of clauses joined
together by coordinating conjunctions: and, but, or,
for, yet.
Grammatical structure of compound sentences:
The semantic relations between the clauses making
up the compound sentence depend partly on the
lexical meaning of the conjunction uniting them, and
partly on the meanings of the words making up the
clauses themselves:
-Copulative conjunctions - and, neither…nor
-Disjunctive conjunctions - or, otherwise, either…or
-Adversative conjunctions - but, yet, still,
nevertheless, however
As to the use of tenses in clauses making up a
compound sentence, we should note that there is
no general rule of their interdependence.
However, in a number of cases we do find
interdependence of co-ordinate clauses from this
point of view.
The number of clauses in a compound sentence may
be greater than 2, and in this case the conjunctions
uniting the clauses may be different.