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2. Characteristics of modern English. According to the general division all languages fall into two groups: synthetic and analytical. Synthetic languages are characterized by some features: a noun has several cases, a verb has several persons and tenses and adjective changes according to the degrees of comparison. Analytical languages differ from synthetic. Most of them use articles and auxiliary verbs to form grammatical aspects of the words. English is supposed to be mostly analytical: continuous and perfect tenses are formed analytically by means of the auxiliary verbs which don`t have lexical meaning (this is a main thing in the analytical form) but the present indefinite and past tenses are formed synthetically by adding suffixes. most of forms are formed analytically both in passive and active voice. Modern English being analytical at the whole comprises also not only the element of the syntactic type based on the flective form, but also elements of the root type based on the fixed word order (subject-predicate-object). “A hunter killed a bear. A bear killed a hunter”. 1.The levels of grammatical organization. Grammar is a system of contact connections both of morphemes as the smallest meaningful units and sentences as the largest meaningful units within the speech complexes. The types of connection are viewed from the levels of grammatical organization. These levels are: 1) positional or directly (code) 2) inventional 3) communicatively-styled These levels render the main structural organization of language and express grammatical generalization. They are inseparably interconnected creating a certain kind of a pyramid. Its bottom - the first level which is logical by its nature. This level is common to all the peoples irrespecting of the concrete language they speak. The second rank is second level of grammatical abstraction. Any notion as the meaningful essence of logical concept requires some language matter for its realization. That`s why the interaction of these two levels is one of the main laws of language functioning. The top of the pyramid is the third level which is based on delivering information. It is individual. It presupposes the act of communication but the language creating possibilities of each person are limited by: 1) the persons belonging to a definite language community 2) the concrete language `inventory which is the only source for language activities of any person Each level has its own formalized meaning. It is correlation (the line between the thinking person and the outward objects) for the first, correctivity (gives the grammatical regulation of the line of identification correcting it in a national way of contacts) for the second and electiveness for the third level. The formalized sphere is the positional direction for correlation, the grammatical types for correctivity, the grammatical synonimy (speech complex) for electiveness. 3. The category of quantity and its essence. The essence of this category renders the numerical relations from zero to endless. Zero represents the complete absence of qualitative essence. Quantitative zero is grammatically expressed either by the complete quantitative negation which doesn’t permit any remaining quality (nobody, nothing) or by the zero article. Thus zero is a form of manifesting the negative quantity endless being the oppositional side of the form representing the positive quantity. From the qualitative point of view it expresses quantity totally manifesting it in its gradation from 1 to 0. Within the extreme numerical gradations on positive quantity there exist additional gradation. They express the person`s individual appreciation of quantity it may be miserable (few, little), great (much, many), intermediate (some, several). Thus the positive quantity operates with upper levels which may be represented: 1) on numerical account (from 1 to any quantitative indefiniteness) 2) in subjective numerical approach towards the object (from little to much) 3) in the extreme numerical gradations (least-most; first-last) All these three derivations of quantity are united by the category of quantity which operates within its main quantitative oppositions (nothing as quantitative zero indicating the absence of quantity and all as quantitative endlessness indicating presence of quantity in its total amount). The category of quantity has universal character which embraces 3 subcategories of minor range: the category of number, measure, extremity. 4. The category of number. It has the opposition of its meaning expressed discreetness-indiscreetness. Discreetness as a strong member of the opposition is based on singularity, plurality which form the category of number. The category of number creates the foundation of all the parts of speech phonation. The oppositions observed here greatly removed because of the quantitative factor complexity that includes the various gradations capable to be perceived in their unity and separability (crew, family are used in the sing. and plur.). The latter in the noun depends on the following 2 points: 1) the level of abstraction understood in the forms of the quantitative representation 2) the factor of the nouns` belonging to the class of an animateness/unanimateness The nature of perception of an object in its quantitative connections owing to which any quality of the object is treated either: 1) as quantitatively fixed 2) as something that can not be quantitative fixed The really existing opposition one uniteverything exceeds. It enters the positive part which represents the existing quantity. It displays itself as a particular case of a more general oppositive dichotomy: presence of quantity is opposed to absence of it. Zero quantity is expressed on the syntactical level by means of negation (daren`t, shan`t) and by some morphological means (nothing, nobody). On the one hand plurality and singularity are contrasted with the absence as a negative feature and thus they prove to be united by the same meaning (presence of quantity or a positive quantity). In this meaning we can say that singular manifistates itself as the meaning of plurality. In its very anture it is concrete which finds expression in a form of all countable nouns irrespective of their belonging to adverbs. But the nature of plurality is a bit of different essence. Plurality deals with the usual formulae of addition according to which the some is always equal to plural number irrespective of the concrete number items. In this respect grammatical meaning of plurality has one common feature: It`s abstract quantity which can comprise the notion of singularity in the character of its generalizing abstract quantity. In this sense absence of quantity and plurality which comprises generalized singularity can be connected as abstract meanings opposed to the concrete meaning of singularity. 5.Meaning of singularity. Singularity may be defined as a specific variant of positive quantity or infinite plurality. In the sphere of positive quantity there is a flowing transition of singularity into plurality which is realizes by the different levelness of singularity. Its entrance into the sphere of plurality gives it a shade of quantitative abstractness, which permits it to express the generalizingly abstract quantity. In connection was it that very determination of singularity should include the meaning of the completely represented object. That’s why the inner concept of singularity embraces 2 extreme levels of quantitative gradations and one intermediate level. The first extreme level as the initial one is equal to the countable unit (dog, tree). The intermediate level as a transitional one renders the summary generalizing singularity which is finally subdivided into 2 groups: 1) concretizing (furniture) 2) abstract (pleasure, milk) The highest level of singularity due to its conceptually quantitative generalization and lack of concretness as if overpassing the limits of singularity. In this respect it transferes into the sphere of plurality where the abstractly quantitative foundation unites them together. 6. Meaning of plurality. The grammatical meaning of plurality is to represent quantitative abstractness. It`s plural which permits to comprehend the singular meaning differently. Plural is also of the different degrees of its generalization. There is: 1) The concretizing plurality which reflects the dual character of the object combined into one inseparable entirety (scissors, trousers, sales). 2) The indefinite quantitative plurality which is not correlated with singularity, because there`s the uncountable essence that cannot be represented in its quantitative separation (movables-движимое имущество). 3) The abstract plurality which creates the grammatical forms overgrowing narrow units of the traditional numerical oppositions: singularity-plurality. 8.Quantity within the nominal system. Within the nominal system the category of number occupies the predominant position. It is of the most resistance see here being the only category which remains unchangeable in any language evolutions. When the other cat. such as gender and case disappear functioning in the nominal system. It renders the quantitative relations directly and subordinates that temporal and spaceal relations while functioning within the verbal system. it renders the quantitative relations indirectly. But even in the nominal system the cat. of number and it’s meaning is not renounces. In substances it requires the repetition of the homogeneous objects when nothing more can be added. “a house+a house=houses”. The article as a formal limitator of any substantive is also penetrated by the quantitative oppositions. The leading meaning of it is concretizing the quantitative aspect which is based on polarization of the kind of zero as negative and qualitative- as positive. The zero meaning is expressed by the zero article used with uncountable nouns where it is impossible to take any part from something which has neither size, nor volume. Within the qualitative part any representation of quantity is not of independent kind being directly subjected. 10. Category of spreading duration. 1) the patriciple form. 1) the gerundial form 2) the continuous form The suffix –ing is used in participle, gerund, continuous and in verbal nouns. The suffix –ing in patriciple form reveals uniformity of spreading the action within the temporal zone mocked by the predicate. We saw him working in the garden. Any sentence being a complete unit of thought is obligatory marked by the definite temporal plan concentrated as a rule in its predicate, everything else which may be represented as having the parallel duration should be also rendered. She was in the room in dreamt about him. – Parallel development is being expressed by two different predicates revealing the idea of the person’s being and dreaming. Such a duplication is not obligatory norm of representing the temporal parallelism. Moreover duplication is usually used in a grammar as a special stylistic means for creating a definite grammatical stress. The greatest – by far the greatest. But if the emphatic stress isn`t remarkable there exists special form in English which changing the structure of the sentence may create a definite parallelism of the temporal plan (she was in her room dreaming about him). In this example the simultaneousness of these two processes takes place as obvious. Thus somebody’s being is the first process and her dreaming is the second one occuring at the same period of time. In combination with a noun modified by an –ing form the meaning of temporal simultaneousness remains. The simultaneous temporality concerns neither observed process nor the static features. It`s representing as something or somebody that reveals one of its potential features, just at the moment of its being in the plain or smiling state. That is of the moment of its fixation. The temporal zone created by the present participle has an open character not only because of its dependence on its predicate but first of all because of its grammatical meaning. In all the cases being used with the verbs or the nouns, it manifests the meaning of spreading duration which has no final aim in view of its term. Any limit of this duration may be put by the static and possessive features of the object itself. The perfect form of present participle creates a close form of temporality. The perfect participle being closed has the final aim in view put forward by the very meaning of priority which exists only before the definite act takes place. The indefinite participle being open has no limits of its duration except the object together with which the process of spreading duration becomes possible. Having generalized the category of spreading duration the gerund reveals an additional grammatical nuance, the meaning of qualitative limitation.” I rely on her. I rely on Peter’s answering.” Interruptiveness of spreading duration is limited in such cases being defined by the qualitative limitation due to which the qualifience scope may become narrow or wider as the scope of temporality. Smoking- not limited. My smoking.- limited by scope. My today’s smoking– limited by period of time. The gerund has the double plan expression of spreading duration. 1) the dependent plan which is determined by possible availability of the qualitative limitator.” my today`s writing” 2) The independent plan which is determined by the gerundial form itself (writing, being written) and which may be represented in the Passive. The narrow grammatical character of grammatical form reproduces not only the general meaning of spreading duration equally common to this form, but gerund. The additional meaning is inherent only in continuous form which expresses its relative temporal independence of narrowing character of spreading duration rendered by its structure. In any temporal zone (present/past) spreading an action is limited by a definite period which should be covered duratively and not interruptively. Detailing this temporal character may be increased by 2 factors: 1) additional introducing of the lexical indicators of a different character (now, at 7 o’clock) 2) durative uniformity which may be underlined by the indefinite moment, of the general temporal line to the predicates.”When i came in they were getting into the taxi.” By the form of came we render the same temporal zone past time. One action is nearly crossing the other not being managed. The general additional character of suffix –ing is observed towards the other aspectological point of view.” She has been reading a book.” Such usage becomes possible due to generalizing of the suffix –ing. It’s used as a producer of the meaning of spreading duration. It also has additional grammatical specificity of the form as the producer of temporal independence of narrowing character of durative spreading. This additional meaning is preserved in any continuous form from the aspectological point of view. 11. The category of limitation. It has a universal character. It serves to reflect the rescriptive relations of reality as language development is the considerable degree of the result limiting due to which the reality of being is expressed. It’s a terminative essence of limitation that defines not only the nominal system subdivision but the further unfounding into sentences and supersensual units and extrasegments. It’s the only category that embraces all levels of language abstraction : semantical, paradygmatical, syntacticall, lexical. The semantical one is represented by subdividing different semantical, phonetical complexes into 2 unequal parts/ groups, each of which is united either by its positive/ negative charge. The positive charge may be marked as D+, it has its final aim in view. (come) mostly consonants reveal the meaning. The negative group is marked as D-, it has no final development aim. In their unity they compose the integral meaning . The lexical level reserves this semantic subdivision representing it in words, each of which refers to a definite part of speech. Thus the charge of the limitating potential being increased or weakened by its combination with a definite meaning gives a word as a vocabulary unit the same negative or positive limitating character. This character is obligatory built of unifying the groups which semantically have nothing in common. Consequently such verbs as to come, to break, to begin, to drop expressing actions referred to positive form embrace different groups with its perspective. 1) perfective groups (to come, to break) 2) inchoative groups (begin) 3) momentory groups (drop, catch) All these groups differ by their descriptive modifying quantitative character when the inchoative groups describe the process while the momentary and perfective ones presuppose its resultative and define it as quantitively a numeric amount. The weak member of the opposition D- doesn`t oppose the verbs by their semantic stands because they represent that durational imperfectness which characterizes the meaning of unaspectness. Thus the limiting character within the verb system is represented by the meaning of aspectiveness. 12. Principles of sentence formation. There exist some models of sentence formation. 1) SpbeO This model is based on the meaning of being and centripetal direction when subject and object create an innally inseperable form (I (predicate) am a teacher (subject)). 2) SphaveO This model is based on the meaning of possession and centrifugal direction when subject and object create 2 autonomic sentences. Both the models may be transformed in speech where their functioning is brought into existence as the models of impersonal sentences as the secondary structure.Expressing the nominativeness determines the syntactical meaning of the subject , when the subject is correlated with a denotate of reality there appear personal sentences.” He has some difficulties in going on. The one must do his duty. The valley has some mineral springs.”When the subject has no correlation with a denotate of reality there appear non-personal sentences based on incompatibility (несовместимость). “It`s difficult for him to go home. One must do one`s duty. There are some mineral springs in the valley.”The non-personal sentences like the personal ones are formed by 2 ways of correlation: quantitative and qualitative.The personal and impersonal (безличные) sentences like the personal ones are formed by the qualitative of correlation and preserve the meaning of being. “The book is nice. It is a nice book.”The sentences built up by quantitative way of correlation preserve the meaning of possession based on copulation. “The valley has some mineral springs. There are some mineral springs in the valley.”The sentences built up by the subordinate way of correlation preserve the meaning of modality.“This one must do its duty. One must do one`s duty.”Difference between correlation and correctivity. 1) The correlation is not duplicated in correctivity and it is not an abrupt structure which is filled on the second level. It is a general schematically directed model of word order that is centripetal expressing the relations of possession as those of quantitative dependence of the part of the whole. Correctivity is realizing this word order model by concrete language means that is creating different types of sentences on the basis of all the categories inherent in the language and characteristic of its structure. 2)The dominant meaning of being which expresses coordination and the meaning of possession which expresses autonomy are drawn (стянуты) together in sentences which presuppose the nominal structure for the initial denotate. The change of meaning leads to the modification of syntactic combinability. That`s why any development of syntactical synonimy is possible if the correlation of centripetal and centrifugal kinds is preserved. 13. Function of nominativeness. The principles of sentence formation are immediately connected with a meaning of nominativeness. The system of cases is that form of word declension by means of which different shades of the space location of objects find their reflection in language. The case system expresses the change in the objects dislocation due to which it can be replaced by a preposition, main function of which is to regulate the space dependence of nouns.The predicate never determines the special shift of the subject but on the contrary it itself obtains an impulse to motion from the subject. No preposition ever duplicates a subject. There is no preposition to govern or to substitute the subject. Since the subject is always used in nominal case a nominativeness is a phenomenon not correlated to preposition and independent from the predicate. Indo-European languages are nominatival in their structure because the subject is always in nominal place here. The function of the subject may be executed by these grammatical classes that have no case system, whatsoever (infinitiv, adverb, interjection). This explains the nature of nominativeness which is not a case form but the initial element of correlated connection. The case form establishes the subordinate relations of special character dependent on the verb. Nominativeness on the contrary fixes that initial positive position which serves as a starting point of further development of thought. The universalism of the linguistic structure is often violated as a certain atavism being replaced by impersonal constructions more vivid and emotionally saturated (эмоционально насыщенные). The first position is occupied by the doer of the action where the form of nominativeness renders the idea of special correlation with its temporality. Irrespective of the form of expression of nominativeness its function might be carried by an adverb (quickly doesn`t always mean well) or sometimes by infinitiv (to smoke is harmful). While incoding a certain object by linguistic means a code model consisting of positionallyfixed members is used. Each of the members has its own linguistic meanings. Subject as the named object representation is abstract and should be concretilized by predicate. In this situation a predicate is a part of the dynamic representation. The second position which characterizes a predicate is more concrete than the first one because it presupposes that idea of spacial temporal correlation of the object to the speaker represented in this abstract quality by its first position. The initial understanding of the object creates statics as that structure of nominativeness which as a rule is always affirmative. Usually the list of words with a negative informativeness is not long in English (departure, refuse) The vast majority of words used in the nominative position as some of the definite informative notions concerning the object are representing the positive meanings. The imformative notions not being unchangeable depend on the following factors: 1) surrounding circumstances where the object may be represented in its different states (old, cold) It is a cottage. 2) our penetrating into the inner structure of the object that is defined by the general level of our knowledge of reality (atom, visible, neutral) It is a scarcely cottage 3) the speaker`s subjective estimation of the object. It is a hut. My going home (expresses dynamics) was long (referes to the past) In this case the object obtains some additional qualitative limitation as the indication of time, quantity, that closes sentence. That is why the process of nominalization is inseparably connected with a process of limitation. There are 7 pairs of relations integrated within the frame work of the sentence. 1) cause and consequence revealed in complex sentences 2) essence and phenomenon revealed in any conjunctional sentences of being 3) form and contents revealed in any twomembered sentence 4) necessity and obligation reveales in sentences with modal elements 5) part and whole elements revealed in any sentences of possession that presupposes two relatively autonomic sentences 6) patricularization and generalization revealed in any sentence of comparison 7) possibility and reality in sentences with the oblique moods All these relations characterize not only separate moment of stage of the development of human knowledge and language consequently but all the processes of cognition taken as a whole. 14. Morphemic structure of the word. Morpheme – is one of the central notions of grammatical theory, without which no serious attempt at grammatical study can be made. Morpheme is the smallest meaningful unit of the language. There are may be zero morphemes that is the absence of morpheme. It indicates a certain meanings (book-books).Zero morpheme indicates singular form, s-morpheme plurality. In traditional grammar the study of the morpheme was conducted in the light of 2 criteria (positional and semantic). The combination of these criteria gives us a classification of morphemes. According to their position-can be prepositional(prefix),central (root)&postpositional(suffixes&inflexions). According to semantic criteria roots are the bearers of meaning. Prefix&suffixes-have lexicosemantic function. Inflexions have no lexical meaning or function, however an inflexion morpheme can get a lexical meaning in some special cases (colourcolours//custom-customs)-lexicalization. Morphemes can be: -free&bound(Bound morphemes cannot form words by themselves, they are identified only as component segmental parts of words. On the contrary, free morphemes can build up words by themselves, i/e/ can be used “freely”.e.g. handful – the root hand is a free morpheme, the suffix –ful is a bound morpheme.) -overt &covert (Overt morphemes are genuine, explicit morphemes building up words; the covert morpheme is identified as a contrastive absence of morpheme expressing a certain function. The notion of covert morpheme coincides with the notion of zero morpheme in the oppositional description of grammatical categories. e.g. clock-s - 2 morphemes (a lexical morpheme and a grammatical one) clock-Ø – 2 morphemes (the overt root and the covert (implicit) zero morpheme Ø) -segmental&suprasegmental (Supra-segmental morphemes are intonation contours, accents, pauses.) -additive (Additive morphemes are outer grammatical suffixes, as they are opposed to the absence of morphemes in grammatical alternation: e.g. look-ed; small-er On the basis of linear characteristics, “continuous (linear)” morphemes and “discontinuous” morphemes are distinguished. The discontinuous morpheme is a 2-element grammatical unit, which is the analytical from comprising an auxiliary word and a grammatical suffix:e.g. be … ing – is going (continuous) have … en – has gone (perfect) be … en – is taken (passive) Continuous morpheme is uninterruptedly expressed. 15. Categorical structure of the word. Notional words possess some morphemic features expressing grammatical meanings. These meanings are very abstract, very general. The grammatical form presents a division of the word on the principle of expressing a certain grammatical meaning. The most general notions reflecting the most general properties of phenomena are referred to in logic as «categorical notions», or «categories». The categorial meaning (f.e. grammatical number) unites the individual meanings of the correlated paradigmatic forms (f.e. singular-plural) and is exposed through them. As for the grammatical category itself it presents the same as the grammatical «form», a unity of form and meaning and constitutes a certain signemic system. The ordered set of grammatical forms expressing a categorial function constitutes a paradigm. The paradigmatic correlations are called grammatical oppositions. Three main qualitative types of oppositions were established in phonology: privative, gradual, and equipollent. By the number of members they were divided into binary and more than binary. The means employes for building up memberforms of categorial oppositions are traditionally divided into synthetical and analytical; accordingly, the grammatical forms themselves are classed into synthetical and analytical too. Synthetical grammatical forms are based on inner inflexion, outer inflexion, and suppletivity. From the point of view of referent relation, grammatical categories should be divided into immanent (categories innate for a given lexemic classsubstantive-pronominal person, substantive number, tense of the verb, the comparison of the adjectives) and reflective categories (categories of a secondary, derivative semantic value-verbal person, verbal number). Another essential division of grammatical categories is based on the changeability factor of the exposed feature. The feature can be constant (gender, which divides the class of English nouns into non-human (It), human male (he), human female (she), human common gender names (he/she) or variable (substantive number (singular- plural), degrees of comparison). 16. Grammatical classes of the words. The words of languages, depending on various formal and semantic features, are divided into grammatically relevant sets or classes. These classes are called parts of speech. In modern linguistics parts of speech are discriminated on the basis of three criteria: semantic ( presupposes the generalized meaning), formal ( shows inflexional and derivational features), functional (syntactic role). According to these criteria words on the upper level are divided into notional (noun,, adjective, numeral, pronoun, verb, adverb) and functional (article, preposition, conjunction, particle, modal word, interjection), and then changeable and unchangeable. Each part of speech after its identification is subdivided into subseries. Thus, nouns are subcategorized into proper (Mary) and common (girl), animate (man) and inanimate (earth), countable (coin) and uncountable (news), concrete (stone) and abstract (love). Verbs are subcategorized into fully predicative (walk) and partially predicative (can), transitive (take, put) – intransitive (live, stay), actional (write) and statal (sleep), factive (roll) – evaluative (hate). But this three-criteria principle of dividing the words into grammatical classes faces some difficulties. Some lexemes have morphological status of notional words, but are essentially distinguished from them them by playing the role of grammatical mediators in phrases and sentences (modal verbs with their equivalents – suppletive fillers, auxiliary verbs, aspective verbs). So the so-called syntactic classification was established. It is more important and more universal because it shows the distribution between different sets in accord with their functional role. This classification is based on the study of words` combinability by means of substitution testing. The testing results develop the standard model of four main positions of notional words: noun. Verb, adjective, adverb. Pronouns are included into the corresponding positional classes as their substitutes. The other words are treated as function words of various syntactic values. 17. Noun: general characteristics of noun and gender. The Noun is a word expressing substance in the widest sense of the word. Noun has a categorial meaning of thingness, Its functions are determined by its semantic. In the sentence it can perform subjective, objective, attributive, adverbial & predicative functions. Apart from the sentence-part functions the noun is characterized by the types of combinability: -Prepositional with other nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs. Ex:An entrance to the house. -possessive combinability ex:The President’s speech -With one another by sheer contact ex:Film festival The existance of this combination (3 types) is a big problem for many scholars. How to treat them? Weather it`s one separate word or a word group. The N is characterized by a set of formal features. It has it’s typical suffixes, stem models, conversion patterns. Not all scholars are unanimous on the number of grammatical category of the noun. Classification of nouns: 1.Proper&common noun (the base of this division is “type of nomination” 2.Animate&Inanimate(the base of this division is form existance) 3.Human&Non-human(based on personal quality) 4.Countable&Uncountable (quantative structure) The problem of the category of gender: There is a constant contradiction between the presentation of gender in English. Blokh:The category of gender is expressed in English by the obligatory correlation of nouns with the personal pronouns of the 3rd person.It’s strictly oppositional, formed by 2 oppositions hierarchically related.1.This opposition functions in the whole set of nouns dividing them into person (human) (strong) and non-person (non-human) nouns (weak). 2. The other opposition functions in the subset of person nouns only dividing them into masculine and feminine. The cases of reductions:1.Non-person & their substitute are used in the positions of neutralization. 2.Great number of nouns are capable for expressing both female & masculine person genders. Ex:person,parent,friend have a common gender. In plural all gendersneutralized. Nouns can show the sex of their referents lexically ex:boy-friend,girl-friend or with the help of suffixes –ess (mistress). Categories of gender in English is semantic because it reflects the actual features of the named objects, but the semantic of the category doesn’t in the least make it into nongrammatical. 18. Category of number. A noun is said to be in the singular number when it denotes one person or thing; it is said to be in the plural number when it denotes more than one person or thing. So the category of number is expressed by the binary private opposition. The strong member is the pl. and the weak member is the singular. The productive ways of expressing the number the morpheme –S. The productive way of expressing the singular is by zero morpheme. The other ways are vowel interchange men-man (replacive morpheme). The archaic suffix en-oxoxen,child-children and also individual singular and plural suffixes of borrowed nouns: formula-formulae. The cases of homonymy (fish-fish) The semantic nature of the difference between singular and the plural presents difficulty of interpretation ex: three houses and three hours. Three houses-are three separate object and three hours are a continuous period of time as well as three miles, three acres. Here we distinguish “discrete plural” and “plural of measure” ex: water-waters of the Atlantic. Here we refer to a geographical idea, while the water of the Atlantic refers to it’s physical or chemical properties. Here we see an additional difference of meaning. Talking about the number we’re to mention the process of lexicalization, the essence of which is developing a completely a new meaning of the noun in the plural ex: custom-customs. We must consider 2 types of noun - Pluralia Tantum & Singularia Tantum. Among the PT are the nouns: trousers, scissors, etc. The direct opposition of PT is ST. Among this we must note some nouns denoting material substance, milk, butter and names of abstract notions-peace, usefulness with this nouns the predicate verb is always singular. There exist exceptions when the above mention nouns may have a plural form ex; wine-wines (to denote several special kinds of wine),beauty-beauties (of nature) when we mean the objects exhibiting this quality ex; iron-irons According to Blokh we should discern absolute plural, the absolute plural form is peculiar to the uncountable subclass of PT nouns. The absolute plural cannot directly combine with numerals. The absolute plural by way of functional oppositional reduction can be represented in 3 ways: 1.In countable nouns having the form of the singular ex: the family were gathered round the table. 2.In countable nouns having the form of the plural ex: I lit cigarette after cigarette. 3.In common countable nouns used n repetition groups. 19.The category of case. The problem of article determination. Ilyish:Case is the category of a noun expressing relations between the thing denoted by the noun and other things, or properties, or actions, and manifested by some formal sign in the noun itself (e.g. inflection, zeromorpheme). The problem of case in ME nouns is one of the most disputed problems in English grammar. The views on the subject differ widely. Views: The number of approaches is due to a difference in the interpretation of the category of case. LIMITED CASE THEORY: Ilyish doesn’t recognize any case expressed by nonmorphological means preposition + Noun is not a case form English nouns have 2 cases: common case (e.g. father) and genitive case (e.g. father’s); POSITIONAL CASE THEORY: The number of cases in English is more than 2 (3, 4, 5 …); the case may be expressed by prepositions or by word order; Curme: PREPOSITIONAL CASE THEORY – there are as many cases as there are prepositions (e.g. of Peter, to peter, with Peter…etc) Хаймович/Роговская: The category of case of nouns is the system of opposemes (girl-girl’s) showing the relations of the noun to other words in speech. Case is one of those categories which show the close connection (a) between language and speech, (b) between morphology and syntax. a.the members of the case opposeme JohnJohn’s are united paradigmatically on the basis of their syntagmatic differences. b.Though case is a morphological category it has a distinct syntactical significance. Common case the functions of subject and object; possessive case the function of an attribute. The category of article determination. Blokh: The semantic purpose of the article is to specify the nounal referent, to define it in the most general way, without any explicitly expressed contrasts. In the absence of a determiner, the use of the article with the noun is quite obligatory, in so far as the cases of non-use of the article are subject to no less definite rules than the use of it. ??? Is article a purely auxiliary element of a special grammatical form of the noun which functions as a component of a definite morphological category, or is it a separate word, i.e. a lexical unit in the determiner word set, if of a more abstract meaning than other determiners. ??? Can “article + noun” be a form of the noun? If we agree that the group “article + noun” is an analytical form of the verb we shall have to set up a grammatical category in the noun which is expresses by one or the other article or by its absence. That category might be called DETERMINATION. In this case we could also find a “zero article”.If we stick to the view that the group is a peculiar type of phrase, no “zero article” is possible. The role of articles in actual division of the sentence. The door opened and the young man came in./The door opened and a young man came in. In the 2nd case we can see that the central point of the sentence is a young man, which is new ( the person who came in proved to be a young man). While in the 1st sentence the central point is that he came in. The central point corresponds to the semantic predicate, or the RHEME. the indefinite article expresses what is new, and the definite article expresses what is known already, or at least what is not presented as new. 20. Non-finite and finite verbs. Non-finite verbs are the forms of the verb intermediary in many of their lexico-grammatical features between the verb and the non-processual parts of speech. The processual meaning is exposed by them in a substantive or adjectiva-adverbial interpretation: they render processes as peculiar kinds of substances and properties. They are formed by special morphemic elements which do not express either grammatical time or mood (the most specific finite verb categories). They can be combined with verbs like non-processual lexemes (perfoming non-verbal functions in the sentence), and they can be combined with non-processual lexemes like verbs (perfoming verbal functions in the sentence). The English non-finite verbs include 4 forms distinctly differing from one another within the general non-finite verbs system: the infinitive, the gerund, the present participle, the past participle. The infinitive is the non-finite form of the verb which combines the properties of the verb with those of the noun, serving as the verbal name of a process. It should be considered as the head-form of the whole paradigm of the verb. The infinitive is used in 3 fundamentally different types of functions: 1) as a notional, self-positional syntactic part of the sentence 2) as the notional constituent of a complex verbal predicate built up around a predicator verb 3) as the notional constituent of a finite conjugation (спряжение) form of the verb In the sentence the infinitive perfoms the functions of all types of notional sentence-parts (subject, object, predicate, attribute, adv. modifier). English infinitive exists in 2 presentation forms. One of them is distinguished by the pre-positional marker to. This form is called traditionally toinfinitive. The other form doesn`t employ the marker to. It is zero-suffixed form. It is called the bare-infinitive form ( with modal verbs, let, make help, know, had better, would rather, relativeinducive why). The gerund is the non-finite form of the verb which combines the properties of the verb with those of the noun. As different from the infinitive and similar to the noun the gerund can be modified by a noun in the possessive case or its pronominal equivalents (expressing the subject of the verbal process) and it can be used with prepositions. The gerund can not be a head-form of the verbal lexeme because it can not perform the function of the paradigmatic verbal head-form because it is more detached from the finite verb than the infinitive semantically, it doesn`t join in the conjugation of the finite verb. Also it is a suffixal form, which makes it less generalized than the infinitive. Finally it is less definite from the lexico-grammatical point of view. The gerundial paradigm of the non-objective verb includes 2 forms: going-having gone. The perfect forms are used only in semantically strong positions laying special emphasis on the meaningful categorial content of the form. The present participle is the non-finite form of the verb which combines the properties of the verb with those of the adjective and adverb, serving as the qualifying-processual name. The present participle has no categorial time distinctions, and the attribute present is not explanatory. It is used from force of tradition. The present participle has its own place in the general paradigm of the verb, different from that of the past participle, being distinguished by the corresponding set of characterization features. Present participle is triple by its lexicogrammatical properties which is displayed in its combinability (with nouns expressing the object of an action; with nouns expressing the subject of the action; with modifying adverbs; with auxiliary finite verbs) and its syntactic functions (predicative, attribute, the adverbial modifier). The past participle is the non-finite form of the verb which combines the properties of the verb with those of the adjective, serving as the qualifying-processual name. The past participle is a single form having no paradigm of its own. By way of paradigmatic correlation with the present participle it conveys implicitly the categorial meaning of the perfect and the passive. But it has no distinct combinability features or syntactic function features specially characteristic of the adverb. Thus the main self-positional functions of the past participle in the sentence are those of the attribute and the predicative. The finite forms of the verb express the processual relations of substances and phenomena making up the situation reflected in the sentence. These forms are associated with one another and intricate system. The finite verb is directly connected with the structure of the sentence as a whole. And through the working of its categories it is immediately related to such sentenceconstitutive factors as morphological forms of predication, communication purposes, subjective modality, subject-object relation, gradation of probabilities. 7. Category of number in verbs. The category of number in verbs is expressed uniformly by as “being-posessionvolution” The verb has some peculiarities as compared with the expression of the category of number in the static system. It has indirect character. These difernces are brought by the differ.idea of the object. 1) immediately numerical in nouns when the quant.essence of the object is fixed. Indirect numerical in verbs when the stress follows the space scope embarrased by the acting object. 2)Numerical inconcretness that is absence of clear indication of some def.quant. supplies by further division into sing./plur. The difference between the sing. and plur. of the verb referres to the space when the action is performed by many doers. The difference b/w sing. and plur. of verbs is a concrete character in sing.and abstract in plur. which in nouns can also comprise abstractness. 9. Category of grammar direction. The grammar inventory of English includes the particle «to» which is based between static and dynamic system. (I want to play. I gave to you. Turn to the left.) It serves to express the meaning of: 3) Infinitival relations 4) Dativeness 5) Territorial direction But in general all of them can be united by the category of meaning of grammar direction. Infinitive is represented by the ind. Inf., perf.inf and cont.inf. (to write, to have written, to have been writing, to be written). In each form the meaning of indefinetness of the inf. contradicts the def.character of the action development, which is either unlimited or limited (perfect). There is a big difference in representing aspect and time relations. The action expressed by the inf.in any aspect of pronunciation reveals the process not in its full dynamic development but the one partially transferred by the sphere of stability which is the result of the nominal system influence. In the temporal meaning inf.can`t be determined by the predicate form of the verb which it is usually connected with. In the case of the indef.inf. the action can be given only after realizing the act of intention concentrated within the predicate (I decide he thinks we prepare). It`s not determined by the frames of futurity. It expresses not only action but the direction of its perspective development. Within the sphere of the ind.inf.the uncertainty gets quite an unambiguous perspective direction. The use of the inf. with the verbs of volition and application is connected with the modal character of these verbs (I expect to go there-volition). The stable character of processeness is revealed by the inf.form indicating the sequence of 2 combined phenomena. The subjective volition as the 1st act of the thought expression and its realization as the act that follows or as the 2nd phase of 2 combined phenomena. The admission of to with the modal verbs isn`t occasional (she can not do it). Modality as the cat.of subj. Intention has very directive character. The verbs to be and to have are used in the modal meaning and obligatory combined with to. It is impossible to use the inf.after them without to because we have to underline the direction of movement from one phase to another. (She was to do smth., she has to come-the direction is used due to the particle to). Perf.inf. form is combined with a perf.form. It preserves its directive specification, underlines opposite line of the temp. Development into present to past. The direction itself must have been appeared historically as the indicator of movement from object to inf. Past becomes def. In this respect. The meaning of direction becomes generalized categorial notion. It finds its expression in the group of words or when refer to the sphere of future. 21. Category of tense, number and person in the verb system. Ilyish: The tense category is universally recognized. The category of tense is a verbal category which reflects the objective category of time and expresses on this background the relations between the time of the action and the time of the utterance. Past, Present and Future. Some doubts have been expressed about the existence of a future tense in English. O.Jespersen believes that shall and will preserve some of their original meaning (shall an element of obligation, will an element of volition) It is also well known that a present tense form and present continuous may also be used when the action belongs to the future (as planned action). Besides the 6 forms of the English verb there are 2 more, namely, the future-inthe-past and the future-continuous-inthe-past. These forms are used chiefly in subordinate clauses depending on a main clause having its predicate verb in one of the past tense, however they can be found in independent clauses as well. Blokh: 2 stages of the grammatical expression of verbal time: I.Absolutive stage: Category of primary time (present & past) II. Relative stage:category of prospective time (non-future(non-afteraction) & future (afteraction) The problem of the perfect forms. Ilyish:The ME perfect forms have been the subject of a lengthy discussion which has not so far brought about a definite result. 1.The category of perfect is a peculiar tense category, i.e. a category which should be classed in the same list as the categories “present” and “past” (O.Jespersen). 2.The category of perfect is a peculiar aspect category, i.e. one which should be given a place in the list comprising “common aspect” and “continuous aspect” (prof. G.Vorontsova) “retrospective”, “resultative”, “successive’. 3. The category of perfect is neither one of tense, nor one of aspect but a specific category different from both (prof. A.Smirnitsky). He took the perfect to be a means of expressing the category of “time relation”. The categories of person and number are closely connected with each other. It is conditioned by 1)their situational semantics 2) by their direct and immediate relation to tje synt.unit expressing the subject as the functional part of the sentence. The expression of the category of person is confined to the sing.form of the verb in the pres.tense in the indicative mood and singularly presented in the future tense. In the pres. Tense the expression of the cat.of person is divided into 3 peculiar systems: 1)includes the modal verbs that have no personal inflexions (can, will) 2) is made up by the unique verbal lexeme be 3) presents the regular expression of person The verb has some peculiarities as compared with the expression of the category of number in the static system. It has indirect character. These difernces are brought by the differ.idea of the object. 1) immediately numerical in nouns when the quant.essence of the object is fixed. Indirect numerical in verbs when the stress follows the space scope embarrased by the acting object. 2)Numerical inconcretness that is absence of clear indication of some def.quant. supplies by further division into sing./plur. The difference between the sing. and plur. of the verb referres to the space when the action is performed by many doers. The difference b/w sing. and plur. of verbs is a concrete character in sing.and abstract in plur. which in nouns can also comprise abstractness. 22. The category of aspect and mood within the verb system. The aspective meaning of the verb differs from the temp. Meaning. It reflects the inherent mode of the ralizatin of the process irrespective of its timing. The aspective meaning can be inbuilt in the sem. Structure of the verb forming an invariable category.. It can also be represented in variable gramm.categories. The aspective cat.of development is constituted by the opposition of the cont.forms of the verb to the non-cont. or indef. Forms. The marked member is the cont. which is built by the auxiliary verb be + the pres. part. of the conjugated verb (be…ing).- the girl was smiling. He was smoking. The cat.of retrospective coordination is constituted by the opposition of the perf.forms of the verb to the non-perf. The marked member is the perf.which is built up by the auxiliary have in combination with the past part.of the conjugated verb. (have…en) Granny has taken her newspaper. The category of MOOD expresses the character of connection between the process denoted by the verb and the actual reality, either presenting the process as a fact that really happened, happens or will happen, or treating it as an imaginary phenomenon, i.e. the subject of a hypothesis (предположение), speculation (размышление), desire. OPPOSITION 1.Strong member (Forms of oblique mood meaning,i.e. those of unreality) 2.Weak member (Forms of direct mood meaning,i.e.those of reality) Division of moods:1.indicative (actually taking place)2.conditional (merely imaginary)One of the important differences between the indicative and the other moods is that the meaning of “tense” does not go with the meanings of subjunctive mood and imperative mood. “Tense” reflects the real time of a real action. The imperative and the subjunctive moods represent the action as real, but as desired or imagined, and the notions of real time are discarded. Number of MOODS: -Ilyish 3 MOODS (indicative, subjunctive, imperative)- meaningform; -M.Deutschbein: 16 MOODS functional approach; -Prof. Smirnitsky (+ O.S.Akhmanova, M.Gashina, N.Vasilevskaya): 6 MOODS (indicative, imperative, subjunctive I, subjunctive II, suppositional, conditional) formmeaning; -L.S.Barhudarov, D.A. Shteling: 2 MOODS (indicative, subjunctive); -G.N.Vorontsova: 4 MOODS (indicative, optative speculative, presumptive). Subjunctive MOOD includes forms homonymous with Past and Past Perfect, but they differ in time correlation and absence of time as such. 23. The characteristics of adjective. Adjective is a part of speech characterized by the following typical features: 1.The lexico-grammatical meaning of “attributes (of substantives)”. By attributes we mean different properties of substantives, such as their size, colour, position in space, material, psychic state of persons, etc. 2.The morphological category of the degrees of comparison. 3.The characteristic combinability with nouns (a beautiful girl), link verbs (…is clever), adverbs, mostly those of degree (a very clever boy), the socalled “prop word” one (the grey one). 4.The stem-building affixes –ful, -less, -ish, -ous, -ive, -ic, un-, pre-, in-, etc. 5.Its functions of an attribute and a predicative complement. Blokh:The adjective expresses the categorial semantics of property of a substance each adjective used in text presupposes relation to some noun. Unlike nouns, adjectives do not possess a full nominative value. Blokh:All the adjectives are traditionally divided into 2 large subclasses: qualitative and relative. Relative adjectives express such properties of a substance as are determined by the direct relation of the substance to some other substance (e.g. wood – a wooden hut, history – a historical event). Qualitative adjectives, as different from relative ones, denote various qualities of substances which admit of a quantitative estimation, i.e. of establishing their correlative quantitative measure. The measure of a quality can be estimated as high or low, adequate or inadequate, sufficient or insufficient, optimal or excessive (e.g. a difficult task – a very difficult task). The adjective functions may be grammatically divided into ‘evaluative’ and ‘specificative’. One and the same adjective, irrespective of its being relative or qualitative, can be used either in one or the other function. e.g. good is basically qualitative, but used as a grading term in teaching it acquires the specificative value (bad, satisfactory, good, excellent). The category of degrees of comparis:Хаймович/Роговская: The category of the degrees of comparison of adjectives is the system of opposemes (long – longer – longest) showing qualitative distinctions of qualities. More exactly it shows whether the adjective denotes the property of some substance absolutely, or relatively as a higher or the highest amount of the property in comparison with that of some other substances. ‘positive’, ‘comparative’ and ‘superlative’ degrees. The positive degree is not marked. We may speak of a zero morpheme. The comparative and superlative degrees are built up either synthetically (by affixation or suppletivity) or analytically (with the help of word-morphemes more and most), which depends mainly on the structure of the stem. A new objection is raised in the case of the superlative degree. In the expression a most interesting theory the indefinite article is used whereas a prettiest child is impossible there is some difference between the synthetic superlative and the analytical one. One must not forget that more and most are not only word-morphemes of comparison. They can be notional words. They are polysemantic and polyfunctional words. One of the meanings of most is ‘very, exceedingly’ (a most interesting book). The notional word more in the meaning ‘to greater extent’ can also be used to modify adjectives, as in It’s more grey than brown. More grey here is a combination of words. The positive degree does not convey the idea of comparison. Its meaning is absolute. Jespersen: the positive degree is, a matter of fact, negative in relation to comparison. The comparative degree and the superlative degree are both relative in meaning (Peter is older than Mary – Peter is not old). Smirnitsky: thinks that there is good ground to speak of 2 forms of comparison: the positive degree and the relative degree which exists in 2 varieties – the comparative degree and the superlative degree. Statives. Blokh:Among the words signifying properties of a nounal referent there is a leximic set which claims to be recognied as a separate part of speech, a class of words different form the adjectives in its class-forming features. These are words built up by the prefix a- and denoting different states, mostly of temporary duration. Here belong lexemes like afraid, agog, adrift, ablaze. They called the newly identified part of speech the “category of state“ (Russian words: тепло, зябко, одиноко, радостно, жаль, лень). Substantivization of adjectives. Adjectivization of nouns. Blokh:Among the substantivized adjectives there is a set characterized by hybrid lexico- grammatical features. On analogy of verbids these words might be called “adjectivids”. The adjectivids fall into 2 main grammatical subgroups: 1.pluralia tantum (the English, the rich, the unemployed) sets of people 2.singularia tantum (the invisible, the abstract) abstract ideas 24. The characteristics of adverbs. The adverb is defined as a word expressing either property of an action, or property of another property, or circumstances in which an action occurs. They are characterized by a combinability with verbs, adjectives and words of adverbial nature. The function – to express differ. adv.modifiers or the heading of situation-determinants. In accord with their word-building structure adverbs may be simple (here,there,so,quite,why) and derived (slowly,sideways,afterwards,away). Adverbs are commonly divided into qualitative (express immediate non-graded qualities of actions and other qualities – bitterly), quantitative (include words of degree. These units express quality measure or gradational evaluation of qualities. There are some sets: 1) adverbs of degree – very, little, utterly 2) adverbs of excessive degree – too, awfully 3) adverbs of unexpected degree – surprisingly, amazingly 4) adverbs of moderate degree – rather 5) of low degree – a bit 6) of approximate degree – almost) and circumstancial (are divided into notional – adverbs of time (twice) and place (today, ever) and functional – now, here, how) 25. Syntagmatic connections of words. Performing their semantic functions words in an utterance form various syntagmatic connections with one another. One should distinguish b/w synt.groupings of notional words alone, synt.groupings of notional words with functional words, and synt.groupings of functional words alone. Combinations of a notional word with a functional word are equivalent to separate words by their nominative function (in a low voice, and Jimmy). These combinations are called formative ones. Groupings of notional words fall into two mutually opposite types by their grammatical and semantic properties. 1) are constituted by words related to one another on an equal rank (prose and poetry, he or she, playing, chatting, laughing) – with conjunctions or without them 2) are formed by words which are syntactically unequal (is achieved by differ.forms of the word – agreement, government, connective words – prepositions, word-order. The predicative connection uniting the subject and the predicate builds up the basis of the sentence. The domination of the subject over the predicate is exposed by the reflective character of the verbal category o person and of number. So, complete predicative connections and incomplete predicative connections (semipredicative, potentially-predicative) are distinguished. The completive one-way connection of words is subordinative. All the completive connections fall into 2 main groups: objective and qualifying. Objective connections reflect the relation of the object to the process. Qualifying connections are divided into attributive and adverbial connections. 26. The general characteristics of sentence. The sentence is the immediate integral unit of speech built up of words according to a definite syntactic pattern and distinguished by a contextually relevant communicative purpose. Thus, it is more preferable to describe a sentence than to define it. The main peculiar features of the sentence are: integrity, syntactic independence, grammatical completeness, semantic completeness, communicative completeness, communicative functioning, predicativity, modality, intonational completeness. Predicativity is a syntactical category. It is actualized reference to reality. Logical understanding: combination of 2 parts of proposition. Formally syntactic understanding: relations of the structural components of the sentence (subject and predicate). Semantic approach: correlation of the contents of the utterance with the situation. The latter is most popular. Modality is a semantic category. It is broader a notion than predicativity, it is revealed both in grammatical elements of language and its lexical, purely nominative elements. Prof.Pocheptsov: predicativity is mood plus tense (predicativity is broader than modality) Classification of sentences 1. According to structural features: simple and composite; two-member and one- member sentences. Elliptical and one-member sentences: e.g. Marvelous! Horrible! How very interesting! e.g. No birds singing at the dawn (Strong resemblance to 2 member sentences). e.g. I saw him there. Yesterday (parselation). 2. According to the purpose of the utterance: declarative, interrogative, imperative, exclamatory, ? optative. Prof.Ilyish: before dividing sentences into 3 classes we should divide them into emotional and non-emotional and within emotional we can establish 4 classes. The strictly declarative sentence immediately expresses a certain proposition, that is why the actual division of the declarative sentence presents itself in the most developed and complete form. The rheme of the declarative sentence makes up the center of some statement as such. The strictly imperative sentence does not express any statement or fact, i.e. any proposition proper. It is only based on a proposition, without formulating it directly. Namely, the proposition underlying the imperative sentence is reversely contrasted against the content of the expressed inducement. It is so because an urge to do something (i.e. affirmative inducement) is based on a supposition that something is not done. An urge not to do something (i.e. negative inducement) is founded on the supposition that something is done or may be done. E.g Don’t talk about them (They talk about them). Thus, the rheme of the imperative sentence expresses the informative nucleus not of an explicit proposition, but of an inducement – a wanted or unwanted action. The actual division of the strictly interrogative sentences is uniquely different from declarative and imperative sentences. It expresses an inquiry about information which the speaker does not possess. Therefore the rheme of the interrogative sentence, as the nucleus of the inquiry, is informationally open (gaping). Its function consists only in marking the rhematic position in the response sentence and programming the content of the rheme in accord with the nature of the inquiry. The thematic part of the answer is usually zeroed since it’s already expressed in the question: e.g. How are you? – Fine, thanks. 27.Actual division of the sentence. It is well known fact that the notional parts of the sentence form together the nominative meaning of the sentence. The division of the sentence into notional parts can be called the nominative division a long side of nominative division. The idea of the actual division has been put forward in theoretical linguistics. Its purpose is to reveal the correlative significance of the sentence parts from the point of view of their actual informative role in an utterance. The main components of the actual division are the “theme” and the “rheme”. Theme expresses the starting point of the communication. Rheme expresses the basic informative part of the communication . Between the theme and the rheme are positioned intermediary parts of the actual division. The theme may or may not coincide with the subject of the sentence. The rheme with a predicate. The actual division finds its full expression only in a concrete context of speech. If it is stylistically neutral construction the theme is the subject and the rheme is the predicate and this kind of actual division is direct. The actual division in which the rheme is expressed by the subject is inverted. - The means of expressing the rheme : 1.Lexical meanings – particles (only,even) 2.Logical stress3.Change of syntactic structure (It was he who did it) 4.Passive voice. - Means of expressing theme 1.Definite article. 2.Word order. The actual division is an active means of expressing functional meaning. И.Ф.Вардуаль: Division which presents the ‘basic item’ and the ‘nucleus of the message’, ‘theme’ and ‘rheme’, ‘given’ and ‘new’ was called by V.Mathesius “the actual division of the sentence” as distinguished from its “formal division”. Actual division is the result of the influence of context and situation. Intonation is a very important means of actual division. К.Г.Крушельницкая/А.В. де Грот: actual division is the reflection of the speaker’s attitude towards what is said. This point of view is less acceptable. The point of the actual division of the sentence is in the lingual limitation of the amount of information carried by the message. 28. Communicative types of sentences. The sentence is a communicative unit, so the primary classification should be based on the communicative principle. This principle is formulated in traditional grammar as the purpose of communication. In accord with the purpose of communication 3 cardinal sentence-types are distinguished: declarative, imperative, interrogative. These types stand in strict opposition to one another. The declarative sentences express a statement, either affirmative or negative. The imperative sentence expresses inducement, either affirmative or negative. It urges the listener in the form of request or command to perform or not perform a certain action. The interrogative sentence expresses a question, a request for information wanted by the speaker from the listener. Classification by Fries: 1) oral responses-greetings, calls, questions 2) action responses-requests or commands 3) statements – i see, yes. Another type of sentences is recognized in the theory of syntax, exclamatory sentence. It couldn`t be placed on the same level with these three types, because it didn`t possess any complete set of qualities. Each of the cardinal communicative sentence can be represented in the 2 variants – nonexclamatory and exclamatory. 30. The composite sentence. There is much more to be said about the complex sentences than about the compound. The semantic relations which can be expressed by subordination are much more numerous and more varied than with co-ordination, e.g. time, place, concession, purpose, etc. Types of complex sentences: The notions of declarative, interrogative, imperative, and exclamatory sentence appear to be applicable to some types of complex sentences as well. Classification: 1.According to the functional principle we distinguish object, attributive, adverbial clauses, etc. 2.According to the categorial principle subordinate clauses are divided into 3 categorial semantic groups: substantive-nominal, qualification-nominal and adverbial. The two classifications are mutually complementary: - clauses of primary nominal positions (subject, predicative, object clauses); - clauses of secondary nominal positions (attributive clauses); - clauses of adverbial positions 3.According to the degree of self-dependence of clauses complex sentences are divided into monolythic and segregative sentence structures. Monolythic complex sentences are based on obligatory subordinative connections of clauses, whereas segregative complex sentences are based on optional subordinative connections. The 2 main types of connection of clauses in a composite sentence are subordination and coordination. By coordination clauses are arranged as units of syntactically equal rank, i.e. equipotently. The leading clause and a sequential clause (He came and we had coffee. We had coffee and he came).By subordination they are arranged as units of unequal rank, one being categorically dominated by the other. Besides the classical types of coordination and subordination of clauses, we find another case of construction of a composite sentence. When the connection between the clauses combined in a polypredicative unit is extremely loose, placing the sequential clause in a syntactically detached position. In this loosely connected composite sentence the information expressed by the sequential clause is presented as an afterthought, an idea that comes to the speaker’s mind after the completion of the foregoing utterance. This kind of connection is called cumulation. Its formal sign is the tone of completion. In writing it is a semifinal mark, such as a semicolon, a dash, sometimes a series of periods. Continuative cumulation: He did his job in the office without any fuss; he answered questions in the House: he made a couple of speeches. Parenthetical cumulation: Your story, you know, showed such breadth and depth of thought. Compound sentences: Form the semantico-syntactic point of view there are 2 basic types of connection: 1.Marked coordinative connection – copulative, causal, resultative, adversative, disjunctive, e.g. We cannot go upstairs for we are too tired. 2.Unmarked coordinative connection - is realized by the coordinative connector “and” and also asyndetically (copulative, enumerative, causal, resultative relations), e.g. Time passed, and she came to no conclusions. We cannot go upstairs, we are too tired. Opened constructions are copulative and enumerative. They are used in narrations in literary texts as a descriptive means. Closed type of compound sentences presupposes some kind of finalization. Conjunctions AND and BUT. The problem of communication types: There are compound sentences consisting of clauses belonging to different communication types. In this case it is impossible to state to what type the compound sentence as a whole belongs. e.g. These came nearer than most to meaning something to her, but what? (declarative + interrogative) Can we call a compound sentence a sentence at all? according to communication type – NO There is theory on the unity of communication type, which recognizes compound sentences as a special sentence type. Compound sentences consist of clauses joined together by coordinating conjunctions: and, but, or, for, yet. Grammatical structure of compound sentences: The semantic relations between the clauses making up the compound sentence depend partly on the lexical meaning of the conjunction uniting them, and partly on the meanings of the words making up the clauses themselves: -Copulative conjunctions - and, neither…nor -Disjunctive conjunctions - or, otherwise, either…or -Adversative conjunctions - but, yet, still, nevertheless, however As to the use of tenses in clauses making up a compound sentence, we should note that there is no general rule of their interdependence. However, in a number of cases we do find interdependence of co-ordinate clauses from this point of view. The number of clauses in a compound sentence may be greater than 2, and in this case the conjunctions uniting the clauses may be different.