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THE PSYCHOLOGY OF LEARNING: A STUDENT WORKBOOK Armando Machado Francisco J. Silva University of Minho University of Redlands Foreword by William Timberlake (Indiana University) To Orlando, my friend. AM To Joe Pear, Bob Tait, and Steve Holborn for showing me the light, and Bill Timberlake for making it brighter. FJS CONTENTS Foreword vi Preface x 1 Learning and Variables 1 The goal of studying learning 1 Behavior is lawful 1 Independent, dependent, and confounding variables Operational definitions 2 Exercises 3 2 Graphs and Functions 7 Functional relations 7 Drawing graphs 7 Common functional relations (shapes of curves) Linear relations 10 Positively accelerating relations 11 Negatively accelerating relations 12 Exercises 13 3 1 10 Habituation and Its Properties 23 What is habituation? 23 Illustrating habituation in a graph 23 Properties of habituation 23 Spontaneous recovery from habituation 24 Relearning effect 24 Interstimulus interval (ISI) effect 24 Stimulus intensity effect 24 Stimulus generalization and stimulus specificity of habituation Exercises 24 4 24 Basic Principles of Pavlovian Conditioning Pavlovian conditioning 31 Pavlovian extinction 32 Spontaneous recovery of a conditional response (Conditional) stimulus generalization 32 (Conditional) stimulus discrimination 32 Exercises 32 32 31 CONTENTS 5 Complexities of Pavlovian Conditioning 41 Contingency in Pavlovian conditioning 41 Conditioned suppression and suppression ratios 41 How are excitors, inhibitors, and neutral stimuli related to conditioned suppression? Exercises 43 6 The Rescorla-Wagner Model: The Basics 51 The Rescorla-Wagner model 51 Unconditional stimulus 51 Conditional stimulus 51 The learning process 52 Exercises 54 7 The Rescorla-Wagner Model: Advanced Issues Introduction 61 Exercises 61 8 Reinforcement 71 Amount and quality of reinforcement 71 Motivation 71 Delay of reinforcement 71 Premack’s principle 71 Response deprivation hypothesis 72 Behavioral bliss points 72 Exercises 73 9 “Creating” Behavior: Shaping Shaping 81 Successive approximations 81 Interplay between reinforcement and extinction Exercises 82 10 Schedules of Reinforcement 81 82 91 What are schedules of reinforcement? 91 The importance of schedules of reinforcement 91 Types of schedules of reinforcement 92 Distinguishing ratio schedules from interval schedules 92 Fixed schedules differ from variable schedules of reinforcement Feedback functions 92 Cumulative records 95 Exercises 95 11 Punishment, Escape, and Avoidance Two-process theory and negative reinforcement 103 92 103 61 42 v CONTENTS vi Punishment 103 Exercises 104 12 “Simple” Stimulus Control 113 Stimulus control 113 Pavlovian stimulus discrimination 113 Operant stimulus discrimination 114 Stimulus generalization 114 Peak shift 115 Excitatory and inhibitory generalization gradients Exercises 116 13 “Complex” Stimulus Control 115 127 “Complex” stimulus control 127 Memory 127 Delayed matching-to-sample (DMTS) 127 Radial-arm maze 128 Concepts 129 Temporal discrimination (“timing”) 129 Numerical discrimination 130 Exercises 130 14 Choice and Preference: The Basics of the Matching Law 143 What is the matching law? Exercises 144 15 143 Extensions of the Matching Law Deviations from matching Exercises 155 References 166 Index 167 Blank Pages for Extra Work 155 171 155 CONTENTS vii