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SOCIOLOGY
11TH EDITION
Jon M. Shepard
Virginia Polytechnic Institute
and State University
CHAPTER 1
The Sociological Perspective
Chapter Outline
The Sociological Perspective
 Uses of the Sociological Perspective
 The Social Sciences
 Founders of Sociology
 Major Theoretical Perspectives
 Two Emerging Social Theories

Questions for Consideration
1.
In what ways does observation of a
parade help us better understand
society?
2.
What were the important aspects of a
parade that the sociologists pointed out
to help us understand the relationships
observed?
Defining Sociology

Sociology is the scientific study of social
structure.
 Maintains
a group focus.
 Emphasizes patterned social relationships
between members.
 Uses social factors to explain human social
behavior.
Two Key Aspects of the
Sociological Perspective
1.
Individuals share patterns of behavior with
others in their group of society.
2.
Sociologists can view social relationships
from either of two separate levels of
analysis: within a group or between groups.
World Turned Upside Down
Questions for Consideration
1.
In what ways does looking at this map
change your perspective on where the
U.S. is in relationship to other countries
in the world?
2.
How might this change our perspective
of international relationships, world
occurrences, etc.?
Sociologists focus…
on the group, more than the individual.
 on patterns of social behavior.
 on social forces that encourage patterns of
conformity.
 on the effects people have on social
structure.

Question for Consideration
Can you think of an example, or
examples, of “patterned” social behavior
within your own society? …within other
societal groups?
Levels of Analysis


Microsociology – interest in the interaction
of people “within” social structures;
investigates relationships within groups
Macrosociology – interest in the
“intersection” of social structures; focuses on
groups as a whole
Application of Levels of Analysis
to Gang Warfare

Microsociologists would want to understand the
relationships between members of the gang; the
relationships between gang leaders and followers,
or between gang members and the police.
Application of Levels of Analysis
to Gang Warfare

Macrosociologists would focus on the social
structures in society that promote poverty; the
interrelations between the police,
education/schools, employment, and deviance as
systems.
Benefits of Sociology
1.
The sociological perspective enables you to
develop the sociological imagination.
2.
Sociological theory and research can be applied
to important public issues.
3.
The study of sociology can sharpen skills useful
in many occupations.
The Sociological Imagination

The Sociological Imagination is the set of
mind that enables individuals to see the
relationship between events in their personal
lives and events in their society.
Intellectual Liberation of
Sociology

Task of sociology is to reveal the nature of
human social behavior so it often leads us to
question our assumptions.

Sociology provides a window to the social
world outside of our own.

Provides a mechanism for framing important
questions about social issues.
Applied Sociology



There has been a continual disagreement within the
discipline as to whether sociology should be a social
problem-solving discipline (as it was at is origins) or be
a nonsocially involved science.
Science is seen as “value neutral” which has
dominated sociological thought for a long time.
Humanistic sociology and liberation sociology have
gained considerable prominence.
Snapshot of America: Children
without Health Insurance
Sociology & Occupational Skills

Employers are interested in four types of skills:
1. The ability to work well with others.
2. The ability to write and speak fluently.
3. The ability to solve problems.
4. The ability to analyze information.
Employment with a Sociology Degree
 Social
Services
 Community Work
 Corrections
 Business
 College Settings
 Health Services
 Publishing, Journalism
 Government Services
 Teaching
Sociology & Other Social Sciences


Anthropology – very closely related to sociology;
yet concentrates on the study of “primitive” or
nonliterate societies and focus on entire societies.
Psychology – focuses on the development and
function of mental-emotional processes in human
beings, focuses on the individual.
Sociology & Other Social
Sciences

Economics - studies the production, distribution,
and consumption of goods and services.

Political Science - studies the organization,
administration, history, and theory of government.

History - examines past events in human societies.
Questions for Consideration
1.
For what institutions in society, other
than the family, (such as education) can
you outline distinctive social science
approaches?
2.
How would you illustrate the different
social sciences’ approaches to this
institution?
Europeans Origins of Sociology

Sociology developed in the late 19th century,
born out of social upheaval created by the
French and Industrial Revolutions.
Adam Smith

Adam Smith’s contributions to sociology:
1.
He attributed much of human behavior to the
influence of society.
2.
He laid the foundation for a sociological theory
known as symbolic interactionism.
Questions for Consideration
1.
2.
In what ways are “social change” and
“sociology” connected?
Why is the “scientific method” important
to sociology?
Founders of Sociology

Auguste Comte
 Considered
the “father of sociology.”
 Believed
society could advance only if social
behavior was studied scientifically.
– the use of scientific observation and
experimentation in the study of social behavior.
 Positivism
Harriet Martineau

Harriet Martineau
 Contributed
to
research methods,
political theory, and
feminism.
 Translated Comte’s
Positive Philosophy.
 Wrote first
methodology book in
sociology.
Herbert Spencer

Herbert Spencer
 “Social
Darwinism” - evolutionary social change
led to progress.
 Society is like the human body – each part
contributing a unique function.
Karl Marx

Karl Marx
 Believed
that social
scientists should seek
to change the world
rather than merely
observe it.
 Saw society as a set of
conflicting groups with
different values and
interests.
Karl Marx

Karl Marx (continued)
 Envisioned
a linear progression of modes of
production from primitive communism through
slavery, feudalism, capitalism, and
communism.
 Class conflict – conflict between those
controlling the means for producing wealth
and those laboring for them.
Emile Durkheim

Emile Durkheim
 Believed that social orders exists because of a
broad consensus among members of society.
 Mechanical Solidarity
 Organic Solidarity
 Introduced statistical techniques.
 Suicide: suicide is more than an individual
process.
Max Weber
Max Weber



Believed that humans act on the
basis of their own understanding of
a situation.
Verstehen – understanding social
behavior by putting oneself in the
place of others.
Encouraged value-free research.
Sociology in America
Like sociology in Europe, sociology in
American was born during a time of rapid
and disruptive social change.
 University of Chicago housed the first
department of sociology  The Chicago
School.

Jane Addams

Jane Addams
•
Rejected the common view that
individuals are socially
determined.
•
Advocated applying sociological
theory to social ills.
•
•
Co-founded Hull House.
Awarded Nobel Peace Prize
1931 for efforts in social reform.
W.E.B. DuBois
 W.E.B. DuBois
 Focused on racial
discrimination the “the
Negro problem”.
 Worked for civil rights,
and with NAACP.
Major Theoretical Perspectives

Each theory provides its perspective on
describing how society operates.

Each theory can be placed within the
context of macrosociology (functionalism
and conflict theory) or microsociology
(symbolic interaction).
Contributors to Each Theory
Theory
Originator(s)/Major Contributors
Functionalism
Spencer
Durkheim
Merton
Parsons
Conflict Theory
Marx
Weber
Simmel
Collins
Symbolic
Interaction
Cooley
Mead
Thomas
Goffman
Functionalism
Functionalism emphasizes the functions of
each part (institution) of a society.
 Functionalism focuses on social integration,
stability, order, and cooperation.

Functionalism
Assumptions of Functionalism
1.
A society is a relatively integrated whole.
2.
A society tends to seek relative stability.
3.
Most aspects of a society contribute to the
society’s well-being and survival.
4.
Society rests on the consensus of its members
(consensus of values).

Manifest Functions

Latent Functions

Dysfunctions
Questions for Consideration
1.
What values do you think most
Americans would agree are central to
U.S. society?
2.
How do these work to promote stability?
3.
What do you think are intended and
unintended functions of education?
Conflict Perspective

The conflict perspective emphasizes conflict,
competition, change, and constraint within a
society.
Conflict Perspective
Assumptions of the Conflict Perspective
1.
A society experiences inconsistency and conflict
everywhere.
2.
A society is continually subjected to change.
3.
A society involves the constraint and coercion of
some members by others.
Conflict Theory

Power - the ability to control the behavior of
others, even against their will.

Conflict theory assumes that social change
in continual.
Average Income After Tax, 19792007
Questions for Consideration
1.
How would a conflict theorist interpret
this data?
2.
In what way(s) might a functionalist
agree or disagree with the conflict
theorist’s perspective?
Symbolic Interactionism

Symbolic interactionism focuses on the
interaction between people with shared
understandings of symbols.
– something chosen to represent
something else.
 Symbol
Symbolic Interactionism
Assumptions of Symbolic Interactionism
1.
People’s interpretations of symbols are based on
meanings they learn from others.
2.
People base interaction on their interpretations of
symbols.
3.
People can gear their interaction to the behavior
they think others expect of them and they expect
of others.
Dramaturgy

Dramaturgy – human interaction is
equivalent to a theatrical performance.
 Presentation
of self
 Impression management
Questions for Consideration
1.
How might you apply the dramaturgical
approach to your behavior during the past
week?
2.
What are some symbols that are important
to the interaction between students,
between students and faculty, between
students and administrators?
Theoretical Criticisms
Theory
Criticisms
Functionalism
• Tends to legitimize the status quo.
• Neglects social change.
• Assumes that society benefits
everyone.
Conflict Theory
• Overlooks forces of stability in
society.
• Assumes that only the ruling class
benefits from the way society
operates.
• Assumes the working class does not
know it is subordinate.
Symbolic Interaction
• Sometimes fails to take the larger
picture into account.
• Does not consider the impact of
social forces and/or social
structures.
Two Emerging Social Theories

Feminist Social Theory
 Feminist
social theory links the lives of women
(and men) to the structure of gender
relationships within society.
Types of Feminism
 Liberal
feminism focuses on equal opportunity
for women and heightened public awareness of
women’s rights.
 Radical
feminism traces the oppression of
women to male-dominated societies.
 Socialist
feminism sees capitalism as the
sources of female oppression.
Postmodern Social Theory

Postmodern Social Theory
 Postmodern
social theory assumes that
individuals are not autonomous and that the
ultimate truth cannot be discovered.