Download WH Unit 1 Notes

WORLD HISTORY
UNIT 1.1: EARLY CIVILIZATION – MIDDLE AGES
LECTURE NOTES
LEARNING TARGETS:
 Understand the differences in life before and after the agricultural revolution
 Be able to list and explain the components of civilization
 Understand how civilization played out in the Fertile Crescent
 Compare and contrast how mythology/religion evolved through the early civilizations
 Know the contributions of ancient Greece to the modern world
 Understand the conditions surrounding the rise and fall of Rome
 Know the contributions of ancient Rome to the modern world
 Understand the origins of Christianity, its draw, how it challenged existing beliefs, and its influence on the world
ID TERMS:
 hunter-gatherers
 ethical monotheism
 Athenian democracy
 agricultural revolution
 Ten Commandments
 Republic
 domestication
 prophets
 Twelve Tables
 specialization
 Torah
 Julius Caesar
 civilization
 Socrates
 Octavian/Augustus
 geographic luck
 Plato
 Pax Romana
 Fertile Crescent
 Aristotle
 Jesus of Nazareth
 Hammurabi’s Code
 humanism
 Paul of Tarsus
 Epic of Gilgamesh
 tragedy
 Constantine
 Hebrews
 comedy
 St. Augustine of Hippo
1. Before Civilization –























Prior to 10,000 B.C., people used stone, bone, skin, and wood to make tools
They were called foragers or hunter-gatherers, because they supported themselves by hunting wild animals and
gathering wild edible plants and insects
Early people were nomads, or people who move from place to place to find food
Typically, 20-30 lived in small bands with them men hunting and women gathering
Because these bands did not stay in one place too long, permanent structures were rarely built, therefore, little evidence
survives to help archaeologists accurately piece together the way they lived
Much of what they know is based on the few hunter-gatherer cultures that survive today
Tools became more refined and useful and soon the spear, bow and arrows, and fishhooks were invented
Natural shelters such as overhanging rocks or cave were favorite camping places
Other shelters consisted of huts constructed of branches, stones, bones, skins, and leaves
The only permanent shelters were found in fishing villages near riverbanks and lakeshores where the abundance of fish
permitted people to occupy the same site year-round
Around 10,000 B.C., hunter-gatherers along the coastal plains of what today is Syria and Israel near the Zagros
Mountains, people began to stay put and use the sources of food in their area: fish, wild grains, fruits, and game
They built and rebuilt mud brick and stone huts over generations rather than moving on
The advantages of settled communities included a decrease in infant mortality and a rise in life expectancy
Instead of making long hunting and gathering trips, they brought plants and animals back to their villages to be grown
and raised
This is known as the agricultural revolution and is one of the great turning points in history because it led to rapid
population growth
Historians believe agriculture began independently in four places: the Middle East, (wheat, barley, and lentils), Southern
Asia (rice and millet), western Africa (millet and yams), and the middle Americas (beans, potatoes, and corn)
Involves the shift from the hunting and gathering or foraging to systematic agriculture
Domestication of plants and animals gave humans greater control over their environment
Dogs were the first animals to be domesticated mainly for protection
Soon animals were domesticated for their meat, fur, eggs, and milk
Eventually larger animals were domesticated as beasts of burden to help with farming (oxen pulled wooden plows)
Because humans tended to enclose their animals within their domiciles, animal-based diseases infect humans, however,
over time immunities are built up
Once food production was secured, specialization or a division of labor where people are involved in trade, crafts, and
blacksmithing started





Pottery from clay was made for containers and cooking
Thread from vegetable and animal fibers was made into flax and wool to be used for clothing
Baskets were produced and stone tools became more refined
Craftsmen discovered that metal-bearing rocks could be heated to liquefy metals, which could then be cast in molds to
produce tools and weapons that were more useful than stone instruments
The invention of writing enabled records to be kept while the use of bronze (copper & tin) in metallurgy marked a new
level of human control over the environment and its resources
2. Jared Diamond –









A professor of geography at UCLA whose many bird-watching trips to Papua New Guinea, led him to wonder why the
people there are technologically behind much of the world
He studied human history over the last 13,000 years to find out why people on certain continents evolved differently
Specifically, he looks to explain Eurasian hegemony and why sub-Sahara Africa, North and South American have taken on
an inferior role in world history
He argues that the gaps in power and technology between human societies do not reflect cultural or racial differences,
but rather originate in environmental differences
As a result, the geography of the Eurasian landmass gave its human inhabitants an inherent advantage over the societies
on other continents, which they were able to dominate or conquer
In his book Guns, Germs, & Steel, Diamond develops his theory of “geographic luck”
Simply put, when domestication took place, Eurasian societies were at an advantage due to having better plants and
animals to choose from, whereas sub-Saharan Africa and North and South America lacked both the types of crops and
domesticated animals that would have allowed them to become more advanced
Their crops yielded enough calories and nutrition to support a strong population and their animals were able to be used
as beasts of burden, therefore allowing these civilizations to advance more than those who were lacking
Through cultural diffusion - the spreading of ideas, customs, and technology from region to region through migration,
trade, and warfare - Eurasian civilizations advanced
3. Civilizations –

















Authorities do not all agree about the definition of civilization but most would accept the view that a “civilization” is a
culture which has attained a degree of complexity usually characterized by urban life – that is capable of sustaining a
substantial number of specialists to cope with the economic, social, political, and religious needs of a populous society
Basic characteristics are common in these highly complex and structured societies
Cities: they become the focal points as administrative centers
Jericho, (Palestine) was built c. 10,000 B.C. and although it was only the size of a few football fields, thousands lived in it
and it was surrounded by a large wall, suggesting it had a government and leader
Catal Huyuk (Turkey) developed later around 7,000 B.C. and was larger than Jericho, and its inhabitants lived in
rectangular mud-brick houses
Female statuettes found there had large breasts and buttocks which symbolically represented the fertility of “earth
mothers” and human mothers implying the presence of gender roles
Religion: the gods were deemed crucial to the community’s success, and professional priests act as stewards of the gods
Specialization: many people are engaged in non-food producing activities
Government: based on control of a defined territory rather than kinship connections
Social hierarchy: status distinctions based largely on accumulation of substantial wealth by some groups (kings, priests,
and warriors dominating, and farmers, artisans, and craftsmen in the middle, and slaves at the bottom)
Record keeping: Kings, priest, merchants, and artisans usually used writing to keep records
Architecture: large monuments, usually religious, occupied a prominent place in urban settings
Advanced science & art: art that is no longer merely decorative, like that on Neolithic pottery, but representative of
people and their activities
Long-distance trade/commerce: Cultural diffusion was made possible by the sharing of ideas with distant lands
The earliest civilizations, commonly called river civilizations were the earliest great societies to occur
The Tigres and Euphrates (Mesopotamia) in Iraq, the Indus in Pakistan, the Yellow in China, and the Nile in Africa
The civilizations were directly tied to the rivers and depended upon them for irrigation, food, transportation, and trade
4. Fertile Crescent –




A region in the Middle East where a number of early civilizations arose; known for its rich soil and golden wheat fields
Since the region has few natural barriers, it became a crossroads where people and ideas mingled
Mesopotamia, in Greek, it means the “land between the rivers” (Tigres and Euphrates) and is located in modern-day Iraq
The world’s first civilization, Sumeria occurred there and was comprised of independent city-states


























The rivers frequently rose in terrifying floods destroying villages which forced the people to work together to build dikes
to hold back floodwaters and irrigation ditches to carry water to their fields
Unpredictable floods and droughts and frequent invasions, because they lacked geographical barrier, led Sumerians to
be pessimistic about life
Although goddesses were often worshipped, women didn’t possess the same rights as men
Sumerians were polytheistic and thought gods controlled every aspect of their lives and to keep them happy they
constructed ziggurats; they attributed prosperity and disastrous floods to the gods and believed gods needed to be
appeased
The Epic of Gilgamesh is a collection of tales about a hero named Gilgamesh who seeks immortality but comes to realize
that death is the fate of all people
By 3200 B.C., Sumerians had invented the earliest known writing, called cuneiform with scribes making marks on clay
tablets using a stylus
Canals and dikes harnessed water supplies; plows, sleds, and carts hauled produce to town and to distant markets
The use of bronze tools and weapons enhanced technology
People developed mathematics to understand business and government administration using a numbering system based
on six, dividing an hour into 60 minutes and the circle into 360 degrees
Political power was in the hands of a priest-ruler, who over time rivaled the priest for control and these “god-kings” were
seen as divine in origin, deriving their power from the gods and were considered agents of the gods
Due to the constant state of war, power was granted to strong warriors which evolved into hereditary rule
Constant rivalry over land and water rights dominated the relations between the Sumerian city-states
The Epic of Gilgamesh is a tale about Gilgamesh, a great hero and ruler, part god and part man, who sets out on a
journey to find cedar with a companion, Enkidu, who is killed by the storm god, Enlil
Mourning the loss and facing death, he searches for eternal life, finds the plant that restores youth, but a serpent
swallows it while he is bathing
The epic is profoundly pessimistic and gives us a key to the Sumerian view of the universe
The gods, often alternate between showing man favor and punishment and along with the constant threat of flood and
invasion led the people of the Fertile Crescent to be uncertain about the future and total dependent upon the gods
Mythology provided people with explanations for creation, how nature worked, and the mystery of life and death
Natural objects such as the sun, the river, the mountain were seen either as gods or as the abodes (homes) of gods
Prior to scientific reason humans used myths as a way to explain natural occurrences (floods, hurricanes, earthquakes,
lightening, etc.) to provide order and making life less frightening and overwhelming
Ziggurats, the terraced temples of the gods were built as monuments to them and ritualistic ceremonies were used to
praise them
The people of the Near East were polytheistic, meaning they relied on multiple gods to help them in their daily lives and
held elaborate rituals complete with sacrifices to keep them
Hammurabi’s Code was a law code created by Hammurabi, king of Babylon, who conquered much of Mesopotamia
He had artisans carve nearly 300 laws on a stone pillar for all to see and this was the first time a ruler to set down in
writing, all the laws that would govern a state
One section contained civil laws dealing with private matters, such as business contracts, property inheritance, taxes,
marriage, and divorce and although it didn’t treat people equally it was designed to help protect the powerless
Another section dealt with criminal law setting out punishments for offenses to keep people from taking the law into
their own hands and thereby maintaining social order
Although the criminal law called for “an eye for an eye and a tooth for a tooth” if imposed more social order than existed
when people sought their own justice
5. Hebrews –






A people who originated in Mesopotamia and migrated to Canaan (Palestine)
Their largest contribution to Western civilization was religion: Judaism then Christianity
Their history is recorded in the Old Testament of the Christian Bible
The Hebrew Bible tells the story of Abraham (c. 1800 B.C.) and his descendants; born in the city of Ur in southern
Mesopotamia, Abraham rejected the idol worship of his homeland and migrated with his family and livestock across the
Syrian desert
Eventually he arrived in the land of Israel, which had been promised to him and his descendants by the Israelite god,
Yahweh
The Israelites were nomadic pastoralists who migrated from the grazing lands between the upper reaches of the Tigris
and Euphrates Rivers to the Mediterranean coastal plain





















They camped by a permanent water source in the dry season, then drove herds of sheep, cattle, and donkeys to a wellestablished sequence of grazing areas during the rest of the year; the animals provided them with milk, cheese, meat,
and cloth
In the Hebrew Bible, Abraham’s son Isaac and then his grandson Jacob became the leaders of this wandering group of
herders
In the next generation, the squabbling sons of Jacob’s several wives sold their brother Joseph as a slave to passing
merchants heading for Egypt
Through luck and ability Joseph became a high official at the pharaoh’s court; thus he was in a position to help his people
when drought struck and forced the Israelites to migrate to Egypt
The sophisticated Egyptians looked down on these rough herders and eventually enslaved them and put them to work on
royal building projects
The Israelites were led out of captivity by Moses, an Israelite with connections to the Egyptian royal family
The story of their departure, the Exodus, includes stories, such as the ten plagues that Yahweh inflicted on Egypt to
persuade the pharaoh to release the Israelites, and the miraculous parting of the Red Sea that enabled the refugees to
escape
During their forty years of wandering in the desert, the Israelites entered into a covenant or pact with Yahweh: They
would be his “Chosen People” if they promised to worship him exclusively
This was confirmed by tablets that Moses brought down from the top of Mount Sinai, inscribed with the Ten
Commandments that set out the basic tenets of Jewish belief and practice
The Commandments prohibited murder, adultery, theft, lying, and envy and demanded respect for parents and rest from
work on the Sabbath, the seventh day of the week
A fundamental difference emerges between Hebrews and the people of the Near East with the development of ethical
monotheism, the belief in one God who demands righteous behavior from his human creations (essential element to
Western tradition)
Near Easterners saw gods everywhere and invented myths to explain nature
Their gods had limitations on their power, did not always act morally, and could be punished and killed
Yahweh, on the other hand, was all powerful, all knowing, eternal, and the source of the universe
Hebrews believed God gave humans moral autonomy – the capacity to choose between good and evil
Prophets were people who believed God had chosen them to remind the Jews of their duties to him and his law
They carried God’s message to the leaders and the people and warned of punishment for disobedience to God’s
commandments
They denounced exploitation of the poor, the greed of the wealthy, and oppressive behavior and called for social justice
the equality of man despite differences in wealth and power)
They argued that the core of Judaism was not about tradition and rituals but instead, morality
Hebrews and later Jews use the Torah (The first five books of the Old Testament) as a source of law
Differing from law codes of the Near East, Hebrew laws were more concerned with people than with property; they
expressed a humane attitude toward slaves and rejected the idea of one law for nobles and another for commoners
6. Ancient Greece –






Along with the Hebrews, the largest contributor to Western civilization
From c.800 – 30 B.C., the Greeks gave us scientific and philosophic thought, created democracy, and developed a
humanistic outlook
Because the Greek peninsula is mountainous, transportation and communication was difficult
Therefore, the Greeks developed small, separate communities called city-states (often at war)
The Greek coastline has excellent harbors so the Greeks developed thriving trade and set up colonies across the
Mediterranean
Due to contact with other civilizations and cultural diffusion, the Greeks adopted new ideas if it suited their needs
7. Greek democracy –





In the mid-seventh and sixth centuries B.C. in one city-state after another, a tyrant – a person who seized and held power
in violation of the normal political traditions of the community – gained control
Greek tyrants were often disgruntled or ambitious members of the aristocracy, backed by the emerging middle class
Ultimately, the tyrants were unwitting catalysts in an evolving political process toward democracy, the exercise of
political power by all free adult males
In comparison with other Greek city-states, Athens possessed an unusually large and populous territory and in 594 B.C.,
it was on the verge of civil war, and a respected member of the elite class, Solon, was appointed lawgiver and granted
extraordinary powers
He divided Athenian citizens into four classes based on the annual yield of their farms; those in the top three classes
could hold state offices



Members of the lowest class, with little or no property, could participate in the Assembly
This arrangement, which made political rights a function of wealth, was far from democratic, but it broke the monopoly
on power of a small circle of aristocratic families
Solon also abolished the practice of enslaving individuals for failure to repay their debts, thereby guaranteeing the
freedom of Athenian citizens
8. Greek mythology –










A collection of gods whose home was believed to be atop Mount Olympus
Each city-state saw itself under the special protection of one god or goddess
Oracles (priests or priestesses) gave advise and answers to questions directed to the gods
Zeus was the leader of the gods; god of lightning, law and mortality
Hera was the wife of Zeus; goddess of marriage and childbirth
Poseidon was the god of the sea and earthquakes
Apollo was the god of the sun, archery, music, prophecy, and medicine
Athena was the goddess of wisdom and protector of heroes
Olympia was the main sanctuary of Zeus and starting in 776 B.C. every four years wars were suspended while athletes
met at Olympia to participate in contests in honor of
Victors were seen as the ideals of human society, the perfect triumph of body and soul
9. Greek philosophy and the Age of Reason –























By the sixth century B.C., Greeks began to seek explanations for the world around them and philosophers formed ideas
by using observation and rational thought, not myth and religion (the beginning of scientific thought)
Traditionally, natural occurrences like earthquakes and lightning had been attributed to the gods but early Greek thinkers
began to see nature as a system governed by laws that could be understood
Gradually philosophers began to leave out gods from their explanations of how nature came to be and replaced it with
physical explanations based on reason and logic
Early philosophers regarded substances such as earth, air, and fire as building blocks to the universe
Greek society began to tolerate nonreligious, rational teaching, which would have been too controversial in other times
After the philosophers helped replace the supernatural with the natural a group of thinkers, known as Sophists applied
reason to human affairs by teaching rhetoric (the art of persuasion,) grammar, poetry, mathematics, music, and
gymnastics
They sought to develop their students’ minds through a secular (non-religious) curriculum
Greatest among them was Socrates (c. 470-399 B.C) who believed knowledge could be ascertained by asking questions
and then subjecting the answers to logical analysis
He criticized his fellow Sophists for not teaching ethics, so he urged people to look critically at their own lives and choices
“Know thyself” was his plea; an unexamined life was not worth living
To Socrates, human excellence or virtue (arete’) is knowledge, and evil and error are the result of ignorance
He was accused of corrupting the youth of Athens and for refusing to believe in the traditional gods of the city; knowing
the crimes were punishable by death, he refused to deny the charges or seek forgiveness
He was ordered by the court to drink poison [hemlock], and he did so willingly as prescribed by the law
Plato (c. 428-347), an aristocratic student of Socrates, witnessed the execution of Socrates and the destruction of the
empire because of the Peloponnesian War and as such developed a hatred for Athenian democracy and a distrust of
ordinary people’s ability to tell right from wrong
Plato wrote dialogues, a literary genre of imagined discussions, between Socrates and others, to develop his ideas
In his political treatise, the Republic, he criticized democracy as a political system dominated by emotion rather than
logic and the evils of the world result from an ignorance of the truth because man only sees reality as reflections, not as
it really is
Therefore, he promotes a new form of government through proper education of elite philosopher-kings
The state’s basic function was the satisfaction of the common good which allowed the state to regulate every aspect of
life
Plato’s greatest student, Aristotle (384-322 B.C.), who founded his own school, the Lyceum, at Athens, where he rejected
Plato’s view in favor of a philosophy rooted in the natural world
Aristotle departed from Plato’s theory of an ideal reality that cannot be perceived by the senses, rather he saw turned to
what can be seen to exist
Each object has a purpose as part of a grand design of the universe and he sought to discover their purpose to ultimately
determine a general pattern of the universe
Therefore, he embraced logic, metaphysics, astronomy, biology, physics, politics, and poetry
Like, Plato, Aristotle wanted to design the best state and of the three types of government (monarchy, aristocracy, and
democracy), he chose “moderate democracy”, in which the masses don’t have too much power






The ideal government strikes a balance for what is good for the individual and the community as a whole
This is related to his idea of happiness, which is the greatest good and to achieve it, people must seek intellectual and
moral virtue
He introduced his Doctrine of the Mean as a guide for good conduct – he considered all virtues to be means between
extremes; thus courage was the mean between cowardice and rashness
Moderation, therefore, often called the Golden Mean: a compromise between extremes of excessive pleasure and
ascetic denial – was a goal that reflected the Greek principle of harmony and balance in all things
Aristotle also developed the syllogism as a way to use deductive reasoning as a way to test if something is valid and
logical or not (the first two premises must be correct for third proposition to be true as well)
From Greek philosophers and authors a new outlook on life develops known as humanism, which urges humans to
develop their physical, intellectual, and moral capabilities to the fullest, and to shape themselves according to the
highest standards through intelligence and self-mastery
10. Greek literature –









One of ancient Greece’s greatest achievements was the creation of two new literary forms: the tragedy and comedy
Prior to that is the epic poem and two masterpieces are the Iliad and the Odyssey written by Homer
The Iliad is where we see excellence defined as the virtue of bravery in battle first appear
The chief hero is the proud warrior Achilles, who withdraw from the siege of Troy when his lover is taken from him; he
then allows his friend Patroclus to wear his armor in combat and, after he is killed by the Trojan hero Hector, Achilles
avenges his friend’s death by killing Hector in a scene of savage power
The Odyssey, by contrast, celebrates cleverness rather than sheer military prowess as its hero, Odysseus, makes his way
home after the Trojan War through dozens of adventures that test his skill and tenacity; eventually, reaching his home,
the island of Ithaca, and drives of a band of suitors who are wooing his faithful wife, Penelope
Writers of tragedies, sometimes called dramas, drew most of their plots from gods and heroes in Greek mythology and
focused on great men who failed because of flaw in their natures (Sophocles, Aeschylus, and Euripedes)
They used characters to study the human condition by asking basic questions: What is our relationship to the Gods?
What is justice? If the gods are just, why do they allow people to suffer? How can worldly success lead to destruction?
Comic playwrights focused their satire on political and social issues and real people
The most famous was Aristophanes (c. 450-388 B.C.), who ridiculed statesmen, philosophers, and even the gods; his
comedies are full of talking animals and obscene jokes and puns, yet he was deeply patriotic and dedicated to democracy
and peace
11. Greek art and architecture –




Art displayed humanism by not only using human subjects as the focal point in pottery and statues, but also by depicting
them as dignified, proud, and beautiful
Architecture was meant to be a monument to the power and glory of the city-state and often buildings had columns and
ornate carvings on their exterior to fill visitors to the city with awe and wonder
To show their interest in balance and harmony with nature, buildings were often symmetrical and pleasing to the eye
The Parthenon, within the Athenian acropolis, is an example of this balance
12. Athenian democracy –





The Greek city-state Athens developed the concept of political liberty, whereas humans possess the ability to govern
themselves
The Egyptians and Mesopotamians, who were subject to the absolute authority of god-kings and priest-kings, did not
participate in political life, and had no individual liberty
In contrast, Athenian male citizens were able to vote, hold public office, and were equal before the law
They did not believe law was given to them by the gods, they saw law as a human creation, a product of human reason
Despite its achievements, Greek democracy did little to end slavery or allow women to participate in political life
13. The Roman Republic (509 – 27 B.C.) –







The first stage of Roman history which began as an oligarchy or rule by a few patricians (nobles or wealthy landowners)
but soon included the plebeians (commoners; artisans, farmers, merchants, and traders)
Plebeians could own land, but they could not hold public office or marry patricians
Slaves made up the lowest class in Roman society; most were prisoners of war, but some were plebeians who had been
enslaved for debt (slaves were not citizens and had no legal rights)
A republic is a government in which all citizens with the right to vote choose their leaders, who rule in their name
Two consuls, who served for fixed periods, executed the law, instead of just one person
The consuls worked with the Senate, governing body comprised of 300 patricians which guided foreign and domestic
policies
Plebs organized in response to patrician control and often refused to serve in the military until their demands were met




















In time, they created their own assembly, to which they elected tribunes, who protected them from patrician power
To solve the ongoing struggle between patricians and plebs, the Twelve Tables (450 B.C.) was created (a basic Roman
law code that recognized the basic rights of all citizens)
The law code was posted publicly and covered private, criminal, sacred, and public matters
In spite of their differences, patricians and plebs were a united front against their enemies abroad
As plebs became political equals, they began to acquire land, thus creating a shortage that led Rome to expand her
borders through its army, known as the legions
The Roman war machine was unlike any the world had seen because it possessed tremendous discipline and orderliness
The Roman manner of treating conquered populations contributed to her success; in war, no one could match the
Roman legions for ruthless, thorough destruction, yet no conquerors were more generous in victory
Rome extended citizenship to conquered neighbors and offered this possibility to allies, making them great supporters
By 264 B.C., all of Italy was united under Roman hegemony and her expansion finally brought conflict with the great
Mediterranean power of the west, Carthage, in what is called the Punic Wars
They began when Rome invaded Sicily, who turned to Carthage for assistance; three wars were fought with the northern
African city of Carthage between 264-146 B.C.
The first, fought largely at sea, led the Romans to create a vast fleet and after 20 years Rome won, taking Sicily
In the second, the Carthegian commander Hannibal brought the war to the Romans, invading Italy through Spain, even
bringing elephants across the Alps; with the help of allies and the leadership of Roman general, Scipio, defeated
Hannibal, taking Spain in the process
The final war was a route, with the city of Carthage being entirely flattened and its survivors sold into slavery
Although Rome was victorious, these wars mark the decline of the Roman republic due to corruption within the senate
By 133 B.C., Rome controlled all the lands that touched the Mediterranean Sea which became known as the “Roman
lake”
However, the senatorial leaders no longer governed effectively as they became corrupted by greed in the governing of
the provinces
They amassed large fortunes through bribery, extortion, and the confiscation of property
The wars of expansion had a disastrous effect on Roman agriculture because mandatory military service by the peasants
kept them away from their farms for long periods of time
Slaves brought in as prisoners of war squeezed many small farmers out of business and with no jobs they often went to
Rome where they became a permanent and bitter underclass
The long term effects of rebellions and civil wars continued to weaken an already shaken Rome
14. The Roman Empire (27 B.C. – 476 A.D.)














The second period of Roman history, marking the end of self-government and the rise of an emperor who ruled in
conjunction with the Senate
The turmoil and anarchy within Rome led to strong military commanders taking control with Pompey, Crassus, and Julius
Caesar (100-44 B.C) ruling jointly as the first triumvirate; following the death of Crassus, tensions between Pompey and
Caesar erupted into civil war and when Caesar won, he became the dictator of Rome
Caesar implemented a series of reforms, such as opening the Senate up to more common Romans and for that a group of
senators, not wanting to share power, assassinated him
This set off another civil war and a second triumvirate of Marcus Antony, Lepidus, and Caesar’s grandnephew and
adopted son, Octavian (63-14 B.C.) stepped in and the eliminated the senators responsible for the murder of Caesar, but
Lepidus retired and Marcus Antony and Octavian fought for supreme power
The contest ended in victory for Octavian and the death of Antony and his supporter Cleopatra, the queen of Egypt
Although his power rested with his command of the army, Octavian did not want to invite conflict by making himself a
dictator as Julius Caesar had done, so in 27 B.C., he returned power of the republic to the Senate and the people of Rome
and in turn, the Senate decreed him the title of Augustus (the revered one)
Augustus used his control of the army to bring what people desired most – internal peace
He divided the power to rule Rome and its empire between himself and the Senate
Soon most financial and administrative matters came under Augustus’ control
Pax Romana, or “Roman Peace” lasting from the reign of Augustus until the death of Marcus Aurelius (27 B.C.-180 A.D.)
Stable government, law, military organization, and widespread trade and transportation helped the Roman build their
empire and maintain its peace
Government maintained order, enforced the laws, and defended the frontiers
Roman law unified the empire as more people became citizens; telling them exactly what could or could not be done and
what the penalties were for breaking them (later became the foundation for the laws of most of the European countries)
Trade and transportation helped the economy thrive as goods flowed from various parts of the empire using its extensive
road network (50,000 miles of road bound the empire together)

Pax Romana created a cosmopolitan world-state where races and cultures intermingled freely
15. Roman engineering & architecture –








The vast size of the empire made it necessary to create a complex system of roads and bridges
Their roads were used for armies and messengers and were kept in repair, some still exist today
Due to the arid climate, the construction of aqueducts (man-made water channels) was also necessary
Unlike the Greeks, who were interested in knowledge for its own sake, the Romans applied the knowledge gained from
the Greeks in planning their cities (water & sewage systems, improved farming methods)
The development of concrete by the Romans made the building of large structures possible
Engineers learned to use the arch and vaulted dome – which allowed them to construct much larger buildings that the
Greeks
Perhaps the greatest engineering feat was the construction of the Coliseum
The greatest literary contribution was their language – Latin, which became the basis for all Romance languages (French,
Spanish, Italian, & Portuguese)
16. Christianity –


















The complex landscape of the Jewish religious world was complicated by Joshua ben Joseph (c. 6 B.C. – 30 A.D), known to
history as Jesus of Nazareth and to his followers as the Messiah, or the Christ
Jesus left no body of sacred texts, and what is known about him and the first generation of his followers comes from
Greek texts written between the middle of the first century and the middle of the second
The texts include gospels, accounts of Jesus’ life; letters, or epistles; and historical narratives and visionary writing by his
early disciples
The core religion of Western civilization based on the teachings of Jesus that are found in the New Testament of the Bible
The poor and enslaved were drawn to Jesus’ message of love and compassion, and the promise of eternal life drew
people in who lived a life full of misfortune and were fearful of death
He and his Twelve Disciples spread the word that he was the Son of God along with his messages of peace and love
He was condemned by the Sanhedrin for blasphemy and crucified by Roman governor, Pontius Pilate because it was
believed he posed a threat to law and order
Crucifixion was a common form of execution for slaves, pirates, and troublemakers
Jesus’ death did not deter his followers who announced that three days after his death he had risen which influenced
converts to follow this new Jewish sect known as Christianity
Christianity spread beyond its origin as a Jewish sect because of the work of Paul of Tarsus (c. 5-67 A.D.)
He saw Christianity as a separate tradition, completing and perfecting Judaism, intended for the whole world
The Christian message of salvation was to be preached to all nations and people, for “there is no neither Jew nor Greek,
slave nor free, male or female, for all are one in Christ Jesus.”
Paul spread his message throughout the eastern Mediterranean world and Rome and he won converts, established
churches, and expressed the first coherent system of beliefs of the Christian sect
His teachings were radically new: God had created the human race in the image of God and destined it for eternal life
He taught that Jesus was the Christ (from Christos, Greek for “Messiah”) the Son of God and that he died to atone for the
sins of the human race and acceptance of this belief guaranteed salvation
However, by the deliberate sin of Adam and Eve, humans had lost eternal life and introduced evil and death into the
world and salvation from sin was accomplished by Jesus, the son of God, through his faith
Christians refusal to acknowledge the existence of Roman gods was intolerable
Judaism was tolerated because it was not seeking to convert others, however, Christianity was eager for converts
17. The triumph of Christianity –










During the second century A.D., Rome endured a number of internal and external challenges
The success of emperors hinged on their ability to bribe their armies with the promise of land and riches
If an emperor failed to deliver, he faced the real threat of assassination by his army
Since Rome never developed a system of imperial succession, assassinations frequently plunged Rome into chaos
Rome’s internal crisis was compounded by an increase of attacks from the Persian empire to the east, from Berber tribes
in North Africa, and from Germanic peoples along the Rhine and Danubian frontiers of Europe
Constantine (306-337), Roman emperor who made the practice of Christianity legal following his conversion in 312 A.D.
Christianity grew from a persecuted minority to the most favored cult in the empire
Almost as important as his conversion to Christianity was his decision to establish a new capital in Byzantium, which later
was known as Constantinople, the city of Constantine
For the next 11 centuries, Constantinople served as the heart of the Roman and then the Byzantine world
In 341, pagan sacrifice was banned, followed by the temples being closed in 355 and then under Emperor Theodosius,
Christianity became the official religion of the Roman Empire in 391 A.D.















Constantine and his successors saw the importance of one religion allowing them to strengthen their imperial control
During the fourth century, the number of Christians rose from 5 to 30 million
However, the Catholic Church, as it was now called remained divided by significant differences
Two of the most important issues were the nature of Christ and the means by which people were saved
Generally, Christians saw God as a Trinity, at once one and three
Was Christ just a man, chosen by God as a divine instrument or was he God?
Arius (250-336) believed that Jesus was merely human so the Council of Nicaea called by Constantine in 325 declared
that Jesus was divine and condemned Arius and his followers (Arianism remained popular with Germanic tribes)
Despite the declaration of Arians, followers of Arius, as heretics, the sect remained and even spread into Germania
Christians were also deeply concerned with the mechanism of salvation and the role of humans in that process
St. Augustine of Hippo (354-430), one of the greatest Christian authors, set the course of Christianity and political
philosophy for the next thousand years
He wrote the City of God during the last years of the Roman Empire and although it appeared as if the world was ending
there was another world that was lasted forever and was more important
The city of man was here on earth but the city of God was in heaven and that when humans turn away from God to
pursue their own desires as Adam and Eve did , they fall into evil and become miserable and they can only be relieved
through God’s grace
He determined that salvation was free, a gift not earned by virtuous lives but freely granted by God to true believers
He also determined that original sin had been committed by Adam when he yielded to Eve’s temptations
Sin soiled every newborn child and, therefore, baptism was a required sacrament to remove sin from the soul
18. The fall of Rome –









In 376, Huns, a nomadic horse-riding people from central Asia, swept into the Black Sea region, driving the barbarian
Visigoths into the Roman empire
After asking Rome for assistance and receiving brutal treatment instead, the Visigoth rose up and defeated the imperial
army at Adrianople in 378, and the emperor Valens was killed
Theodosius, his successor allowed the Visigoths to settle within the boundaries of the empire and govern themselves
Other Germanic tribes moved into the empire and their warriors served in the Roman army
Soon the Huns, led by Attila (c. 406-453), invaded the empire and did extensive damage
In 476 A.D. the last Roman emperor, Romulus Augustulus was overthrown by Odoacer, chieftan of the Ostrogoths
Rome’s vast size, widespread corruption, and incapable rulers made governing next to impossible
The followers of Jesus were widely blamed for bringing about Rome’s fall; men charged that the ancient gods, offended
by the empire’s formal adoption of the new faith, had withdrawn their protection from the Eternal City
Augustine maintained that Rome was being punished, not for her new faith, but for her old, continuing sinfulness
19. Greco-Roman & Judeo-Christian tradition –






Both traditions make up the foundations of Western civilization but they have two different viewpoints of the world
The Greco-Roman viewpoint suggests the ultimate aim of life was the achievement of excellence in this world, the
maximum development of human talent
For Christians, the principal purpose of life was the attainment of salvation – entrance into heaven after death
Where the Greeks demonstrated the powers of the mind, the Christians explored the soul
They include the notion that all souls are equal in the eyes of God and every human life is precious
Greeks had identified the beautiful and the good, had taught ugliness to be bad and had shrunk from disease as an
imperfection and horrible, the Christians saw a spiritual beauty even in the most unpleasant looking human and desired
to help the diseased and crippled
WORLD HISTORY NOTES
UNIT 1.2 THE MIDDLE AGES
LECTURE NOTES
ID TERMS:
 Dark Ages
 Beowulf
 Pope Gregory the Great
 Charlemagne
 Treaty of Verdun
 Byzantine Empire
 Constantinople
 Justinian
 Justinian’s code
 Islam
 Koran











Five pillars
caliphate
feudalism
chivalry
manoralism
tithe
three-field system
saints
relics
pilgrimages
Crusades









Council of Clermont
scholasticism
Thomas Aquinas
bubonic plague
Flagellants
Hundred Years’ War
Joan of Arc
nationalism
sovereign power
20. Middle Ages –





An era of European history spanning from c. 500-1500 A.D., following the fall of the Roman Empire, otherwise known as
medieval period of European history
During this time, new institutions slowly emerged to replace those of the fallen Roman Empire
Trade had been disrupted by repeated invasions from different Germanic tribes sparked new trends that altered
governments, economies, and cultures
The Dark Ages (500-1000) is a term used to describe the disruption of trade by merchants caused by invasions which led
businesses to fail, money to become scarce, and European cities to no longer be centers of commerce
As Roman centers of trade and government collapsed, nobles retreated to rural areas and other city dwellers fled to the
countryside, where they grew their own food and the population of Europe became mostly rural
21. Germanic (Gothic) people –





















Group of people who settled in Scandinavia along the southern shores of the Baltic Sea,
As early as 750 B.C groups such as the Franks and Saxons moved into northern Europe
Other groups such as the Visigoths, Ostrogoths, and Vandals moved starting in 250 B.C.
Those were migratory, but not nomadic, because they often settled in an area for generations
They survived by hunting, fishing, and by herding cattle, sheep, and pigs
Their primitive agriculture forced them to constantly search for new lands to plunder or settle and by in the fourth
century they had become attracted by Roman wealth
The Huns, a nomadic people from central Asia, led by Attila the Hun (r. c. 433-453) began sweeping into Europe, which in
turn frightened Germanic tribes who sought refuge in the Roman Empire
Politically, Germans arranged themselves in kinships, families, clans, and tribes
Their economies were based on simple agriculture; farming grains and herding animals
This meant they still heavily relied upon plundering other clans or the Romans (metals, slaves, & precious objects)
Since warfare was a way of life, tribal chiefs organized bands of younger warriors who took solemn oaths of personal
loyalty and obedience
In return the chief promised to provide them with food and drink and a share in the plunder
Women were primarily responsible for raising the children, preparing food, brewing beer, spinning thread, and weaving
cloth; they were held in high esteem and often had a voice in tribal affairs
A male who aspired to be a warrior needed a wife who would tend his fields and watch over his flocks and herds during
his absences (making war or hunting)
Women were prized booty for raiding missions and constant targets of abduction
Since written law didn’t exist until the sixth century, disputes were settled through retribution (avenging the death or
injury to a family member)
Gradually Roman law and Germanic custom began to blend as the Germans established kingdoms and adopted many
Roman laws and traditions
Literature like law, passed through oral tradition
The earliest examples weren’t written down until the ninth century, but they still provide how violent an age it was
The Anglo-Saxon epic Beowulf, the king of the Danes, Hrothgar, is powerless against the terrible monster Grendel
Hrothgar appeals to the hero Beowulf, a great warrior who defeats Grendel by tearing off his arm






When Grendel’s mother, a sea-witch, comes seeking revenge, Beowulf chases her to her underwater cave, where he
finds a giant’s ancient sword and slays her
Beowulf becomes king and dies years later while battling a dragon
Germanic religion saw nature as a hostile force
Minor deities, both good and bad, dwelt in groves, streams, fields, and seas and directly affected human beings
Through incantations, spells, or charms, people tried to influence the actions of these spirits
Such practices added a large element of superstition, which lasted through the Middle Ages and long beyond
22. Medieval Catholic Church –









The Catholic Church survived the fall of Rome intact and it was organized similar to the way Roman government was
Every district or diocese was headed by a bishop, and the bishop of Rome, was called the pope (Latin for father)
Monks helped preserve Christianity after the fall of Rome
Men who wanted to devote themselves to prayer, give up their worldly possessions, abstain from sexual activity, and to
withdraw from daily life to live in isolated communities called monasteries
Saved Europe from ignorance by copying the Gospels and other writings by hand with magnificent calligraphy
(illumination) in blue and red and thin layers of gold which helped preserve Western culture
The great bulk of the surviving Latin works of both pagan and Christian antiquity were copied in monasteries
Pope Gregory the Great (540-604), one of the most effective popes at expanding the power and the reach of the
Catholic Church by fully supporting a missionary movement to convert the barbarian people of northern Europe
To encourage conversion to Christianity, pagan customs were absorbed into Christianity
Wedding rings, Easter, Christmas, and Halloween are examples of how pagan symbols or holidays were coordinated with
Christian holydays
23. Charlemagne “Charles the Great” (r. 771-813) –














Charlemagne established the Carolingian dynasty and made the Frankish Empire the largest after the fall of Rome
He took as his motto the Latin phrase, Renovatio imperi romani, “Renewal of the Roman Empire
Through his conquests he spread Christianity and reunited western Europe for the first time since the fall of Rome
Made an alliance with the Christian Church in which he defended the Church from attacks and he spread Christianity
In return, Pope Leo III crowned him King of the Holy Roman Empire on Christmas Day in 800 A.D.
The coronation confirmed the alliance of the papacy and the Frankish monarchy
This event signaled the merging of Germanic power, the Catholic Church, and the heritage of the Roman Empire
There was a revival of learning or rebirth of education under Charlemagne’s rule called the Carolingian Renaissance
Made possible the blending of Roman, Germanic, and Christian traditions into a new European culture
Following Charlemagne’s death in 814, his son Louis the Pious inherited the throne
Louis, a weak and indecisive man, soon lost control over his own family, and his sons rebelled against him
After his death in 840, warfare broke out between his three sons (Lothair, Charles the Bald, and Louis the German)
The Treaty of Verdun divided the empire into three sections and weakened it greatly
After the treaty, Carolingian kings lost power and as central authority broke down, the lack of strong leaders led to a new
system of governing and landholding called feudalism
24. Byzantine Empire (395 – 1453) –















Otherwise known as the Eastern Roman Empire which survived for nearly a thousand years after the fall of Rome
Successfully blended the traditions of imperial Rome with Christianity and Greek culture in a distinct civilization
They kept alive Roman law, contributed to the development of Christianity, protected the eastern borders of Europe
from nomadic invasions, and preserved much of classical Greek learning
It dominated the eastern Mediterranean at a time when medieval civilization was developing in Western Europe
The modern world owes Byzantine scholars a huge debt for preserving many of the great works of Greece and Rome
Constantinople, the capital of the Byzantine Empire; founded by Emperor Constantine in 330 A.D. as the “New Rome”
and was built on the site of the ancient Greek colony of Byzantium
Built on a peninsula overlooking the Bosporus Strait (body of water connecting the Black and Aegean Sea)
The city stood at the intersection of two heavily traveled trade routes: one by land and the other by sea
Silk worms were smuggled out of China and silk made the empire wealthy
Unlike the Roman Empire, the Byzantine Empire used Greek, rather than Latin as its official language
Justinian, emperor of Byzantine from 527-565 A.D. was determined to recover the Roman Empire from the Germanic
invaders and return it to its former glory and he also wanted reform the empire’s laws and institutions
Although he recovered much of the former Roman empire, he is criticized for bankrupting the empire
His wife, Empress Theodora, is the most powerful woman in Byzantine history who served as an advisor to her husband
Justinian’s code, a collection of revised Roman laws meant to regulate the Byzantine Empire
Although his conquests proved short-lived his contribution to Western civilization was his organization of Roman law






Between 528 and 533 A.D., ten legal advisors went through 400 years of Roman laws and the edicts of emperors
Some of the laws were outdated, others repeated or even contradicted other laws
Their task was to create a single uniform code for Justinian’s New Rome
During the Middle Ages, Roman law was largely forgotten in Western Europe, but when scholars from universities in Italy
and France visited Constantinople, they eagerly copied the code
The code helped shape the legal systems of Western Europe and the Americas
For example, the idea that an accused person is innocent until proven guilty comes from the code
25. Islam –

























Last of the three great monotheistic faiths, based on the teachings of Muhammad (c. 570-632), who was born in Mecca
(Arabian peninsula) homeland of the Arabs and orphaned as a child
As an adult, he worked as a caravan manager and experienced visions inspired by Allah (the Arab word for “God”)
He believed that while Allah had already revealed himself in part through Moses and Jesus – and thus through the
Hebrew and Christian traditions – the final revelations were now being given to him
Out of these revelations, which were dictated to scribes, came the Quran or Koran, the holy scriptures, which contained
the guidelines by which a follower of Allah was to live
Like the Christians and Jews, Muslims were a “People of the Book”
Muhammad’s teachings formed the basis for the religion known as Islam which means “submission to the will of Allah”
The followers of Islam are called Muslims and they must submit themselves completely to the will of Allah in order to
achieve everlasting life
The cardinal principle of the Islamic faith is that there is only one God, Allah, and Muhammad is his Prophet
The Meccan aristocracy opposed him, fearful of his impact on the traditional idol worship of Arab society
He and his followers were forced to flee to the rival city of Medina in 622, where he gained supporters
Especially important was the town of Mecca, though known for trade, it was more significant as a pilgrimage site since it
possessed the Ka’ba, the sanctuary that held the sacred black meteorite
Muhammad put together a significant army which rapidly spread the faith throughout the Middle East
The Koran is not only a “Holy Bible”, but an ethical guidebook, law code, and political theory in one
The faith emphasizes the need to obey the will of Allah, otherwise known as the “five pillars” of Islam: belief in Allah and
Muhammad as his Prophet; standard prayer five times a day; observance of the holy month of Ramadan with fasting
from dawn to sunset; making a pilgrimage, if possible, to Mecca in one’s lifetime; and giving alms to the poor and
unfortunate
Those who observed the law were guaranteed a place in an eternal paradise that contains sensuous delights, obviously
lacking in the midst of the Arabian desert
After Muhammad’s death in 632, a new institution called the caliphate was created to provide leadership
The Koran calls for jihad, or “striving in the way of the Lord”, which involves raids against neighboring tribes
Once all Arabs had been unified under Muhammad’s successor, they began to expand outward
First they chipped away at the Byzantine Empire, then they defeated the Persian Empire, the Egyptians, and northern
Africa by 650 A.D.
Arab success was due in part to fanatical soldiers whose valor was enhanced by the belief that Muslim warriors were
guaranteed a place in paradise if they died in battle
A policy of partial toleration, which prevented rebellion was extended to “people of the Book”, so conquered Christians
and Jews people who didn’t convert were required only to submit to Muslim rule and pay taxes
Islamic conquests continued under the caliphs of the Umayyad family, who were the first line of hereditary rulers of the
Arab Empire
The Umayyads moved the capital from Mecca to Damascus and under their rule they overran the kingdom of the
Visigoths in Spain
After crossing the Pyrenees into the kingdom of the Franks, Muslim raiders were defeated by Charles Martel at Tours in
732 (marking the extent of the Arabs’ western advance
Three new civilizations inherited the Roman Empire: the German kingdoms, the Byzantine Empire, and the world of Islam
26. Vikings –





People from Scandinavia (present-day Norway, Finland, Sweden, & Denmark) who remained both pagan and warlike
began migrating and invaded Europe from 700-900
Scandinavia’s sparse farmland could not support the populations that developed there
Their ships allowed migration which were long and shallow, driven by oars and a single large square sail
Viking exploration took them as far as a western territory they called Vinland, undoubtedly part of North America
For nearly 200 years wave after wave of raiders sailed out of Scandinavia every spring, returning to their northern homes
with plunder and slaves






Viking raiders struck terror in the hearts of their victims
Monks were favorite targets and so Irish monks built tall stone towers with doors high off the ground, where they could
draw up their ladders
European lords built stone castles into which villagers might flee for safety
Eventually the Vikings began to settle many of the lands they formerly raided, and as they began to settle, they turned to
long-distance commerce and trade
Over time, they converted partially to Christianity but still maintained some pagan traditions
Their goal was plunder and they caused western Europeans to live in constant fear of attack
27. feudalism –





































Invasions and the collapse of the Carolingian empire led to the creation of a new system where commoners promised to
serve powerful land owners in exchange for protection
The feudal system was based on mutual obligation: in exchange for military protection and other services, a lord, or
landowner, granted land called a fief to a vassal (person receiving the land)
This practice was derived from Germanic society where chieftans attracted followers by promising loot in return
It was not a single, unified, and universal system from the beginning, rather, it developed over time
It provided political order and local government and at it was based on an oath of loyalty
The invention of the stirrup in the 700s allowed highly trained knights to wear heavy armor and fight on horseback
Since knights required money for weapons and time for training they were granted land to use to support themselves
The pressure to find more knights to defend their lords caused a land shortage which in turn led to wars of expansion
Feudalism started in France but spread to England, Germany, central Europe, and in some form to Italy
Chivalry –a code of conduct for knights that combined Christian values with those of a warrior
Their training began at seven where they learned how to joust, hunt, ride, and handle weapons properly
Because young knights had to wait until their fathers died to gain their inheritance, they often fought one another
Tournaments began to appear as a way to curb the fighting
The melee was a mock battle in which warrior on horseback fought in open-ended combat and the goal was to take
prisoners who would then be ransomed, making success in tournaments a path to wealth
Gradually, the joust became the main part of the tournament but still young knights remained uneasy and hungry for war
Manorialism – the economic system where nobles gave peasants the right to work the land on their estates, or manors,
in return for a fixed payment
The manor generally consisted of the manor house or castle, pastures, fields, woods, and a village
The lord kept about one third of the manor land, called the domain, for himself
Peasants, called serfs farmed the remaining two thirds of the land
A typical manor village would be located near a stream that furnished water power for a mill
As town life dwindled and trade diminished, most manors became nearly self-sufficient
Traders, often Jews carried goods by boat on European rivers or on caravans with horses or mules
Serfs were also required to pay a tithe (a tenth of their produce to their local village church)
Feudal lords built strong stone castles for protection and when attacked, serfs took refuge behind the thick stone walls
Castles were defended by heavy iron gates and water-filled ditches called moats
Castle sieges involved a wide range of strategies and weapons to force the castle to surrender
Defenders poured boiling water, hot oil, or molten lead on enemy soldiers and archers stationed on the roof or walls
used crossbows to fire deadly bolts at the enemy
Siege towers, battering rams, and trebuchets were used to penetrate the walls of the castle
An agricultural improvement, known as the three-field system, was introduced where two fields were planted with
crops, and a third field was left fallow, or uncultivated to allow the soil to rest
This was an improvement over the two-field system where one field was planted while another left fallow
Estates were now divided into three parts; one field was planted in the fall with winter grains, such as rye and wheat,
while spring grains, such as oats and barley, and vegetables, such as peas, beans, or lentils were planted in the second
field, and the third was left fallow
The rotation of crops also prevented the soil from being exhausted so quickly
The introduction of a heavy-wheeled plow with an iron ploughshare was an improvement over the wooden plow
Because of its weight, six or eight oxen were needed to pull it but the invention of the horse collar and the horseshoe
meant that horses could be used for plowing without being choked and have greater traction
The watermill and windmill helped grind grain into flour
The expense of animals and their equipment led to cooperative agricultural villages where they shared everything
Farmers produced food surpluses which along with warmer temperatures and longer growing seasons caused the
population of Europe to double from 38 to 74 million people between 1000 and 1300



This growth was despite the relatively high mortality rates especially among infants and small children
15-20% of infants died in the first year of life, while 30% died before the age of 20
Millions of acres of forest were cleared in order to make room for farmland
28. Medieval Western Christianity –















The Village priest was responsible for the peasant’s soul by conducting the sacraments of baptism, Holy Communion,
marriage, and last rites to ensure salvation
Village priests were often barely literate peasants themselves, and it is hard to know how much church doctrine the
peasants actually understood
Perhaps, they regarded God as an all-powerful force who needed to be appeased by prayer to bring good harvests
Special events in the peasant’s calendar were the feast days commemorating the great events of the Christian faith
Holy days provided a blend of paganism and Christianity, especially evident in Halloween
In pre-Christian northern Europe, November 1 had been a traditional day for celebrating a feast of the dead
The Church made November 1 All Saints (or Hallows”) Day, however, the real celebration came on All Hallows’ Eve, the
night before when people lit bonfires and danced around them, frequently disguised in masks
Christmas was held to coincide with the pagan celebration of the winter solstice
In the early church, saints were men and women who were believed to have gone to heaven and could intercede on
peoples’ behalf with God
It was believed saints had the power to protect the living and therefore almost every parish had its own patron saint
The shrine of Archbishop Thomas Becket of Canterbury, England was the scene of many miracles and pilgrimages
The cult of Mary was most powerful because she was viewed as the most important mediator with her son Christ
The number of stories about miracles occurring through her intercession also increased
The role of saints was closely tied to the use of relics, which were usually the bones of saints or objects intimately
connected to saints (pieces of Christ’s swaddling clothes, his manger and part of the five loaves of bread)
Medieval Christians believed a pilgrimage to a holy shrine was of particular spiritual benefit (Jerusalem, Rome, &
Canterbury were popular sites)
29. The Crusades –




















Series of armed expeditions by western Europeans that started in the 11 th century to free the Holy Land from Islamic rule
Pilgrimages to Palestine were threatened by Seljuk Turks, Muslim nomads, who overran much of the Middle East
Although Pilgrims weren’t harmed, they were forced to pay numerous fees to reach Palestine and they also opposed the
idea that Jerusalem was dominated by Muslims
More concerning to the West was the possibility that the Turks would overrun the Byzantine Empire, which was badly
beaten by the Turks at the Battle of Manzikert in 1071 A.D.
The loss of the Byzantines would be disastrous because they served as a buffer zone to the West’s eastern flank
The Byzantine emperor, Alexius I, requested the help of Pope Urban II in 1095, who agreed to ask the Western knights
and princes to go to the aid of their fellow Christians in the East
Alexius needed mercenary soldiers to enlarge his army and when he wrote Pope Urban II asking for assistance, he
suggested that the schism between the eastern and western Churches, which had occurred in 1054, might be brought to
an end
The Council of Clermont, was a meeting in 1095 of prominent religious and political European leaders in southern France
Pope Urban II described how the Turks had seized Christian lands and “killed or captured many people…destroyed
churches, and devastated the kingdom of God.”
Urban asked Christians to take up their weapons against the infidel and participate in a holy war to recover the Holy Land
The pope promised remission of all sins for those who took up the sword for the Church (guaranteed salvation)
Although the knights who made up the first wave were motivated by religious devotion, some sought adventure through
fighting, while others saw an opportunity to gain territory, riches, status, possibly a title, and even salvation
The expanding population led to increased conflict between knights and Pope Urban hoped the Crusades would help end
those conflicts
Those that joined the movement sewed a cross on their clothes and thus became crusaders, from the Latin word
cruciata, “marked with a cross
They reached Jerusalem in 1099 and following a horrible massacre against the city’s inhabitants, they retook it
Although there were multiple crusades, none were as successful as the first
Europe’s increasing population and the crusades stimulated trade with the East for sugar, spices, and silk
The Italian port cities Genoa, Pisa, and Venice prospered because the dominated trade with the East
The travels of Marco Polo in the late 1200s gave Europe abundant information about China which later inspired Western
navigators to find a way to trade directly with China
The growth of trade led to the resurgence of western European towns and cities

In feudal times, status was based solely on one’s birthright, however, invigorated trade and bustling towns gave many
people an opportunity to earn a new place in society, where one could achieve middle class wealth through hard work
and talent
30. Universities & Scholasticism –























The university as we know it is not a product of ancient Greece or Rome, but of the High Middle Ages
The word university comes from the Latin word universitas, meaning a corporation of teachers and students
In the Early Middle Ages, education rested primarily with the clergy, especially the monks
By the 11th century, universities surpassed monastic schools
Those studying to be a priest made up the all-male student body but so to did those who didn’t want to be a priest
Bologna Italy was the first university, followed by Paris, then Oxford and Cambridge
By the end of the Middle Ages, there were 80 universities, most of them located in England, France, Italy, and Germany
Latin was the language that was written and spoken at universities
Curriculum was based on the liberal arts concept, with offerings in bachelors, masters, and doctorate degrees
Fields of study, or majors, were law, medicine, and theology
In the 12th century, western Europe was introduced to a large number of Greek works, including Galen, Hippocrates,
Ptolemy, Archimedes, Euclid, and above all, Aristotle
The revival of interest in Aristotle and in Greek philosophy sparked a major controversy in the Church over how human
beings could learn about the world around them
Scholasticism refers to the philosophical and theological [religious] system of medieval thought
Scholastics attempted to reconcile faith and reason, to demonstrate that what was accepted on faith was in harmony
with what could be learned by reason
Aristotle believed that truth could be discovered only through human reason
Christians believed that truth was revealed by God, and depended solely on faith
Scholastics showed that the church’s doctrine was also knowable and provable through the use of logic and reason
By using human reason, the Scholastics thought, one could make logical deductions from the revelations found in the
Bible and the knowledge discovered through observation
Thus faith and reason together would reveal truth
As these ideas spread throughout Europe, a tradition of learning was revived and it helped create a new educated class,
who spoke and wrote Latin and shared a common culture
Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274), a Dominican monk did more to advance scholasticism than did any other person
He argued that both reason and faith were necessary for a complete understanding of truth
One could arrive at a truths based on reason and also truths based on faith, however, the two truths could not be in
conflict with one another
31. Black Death –


















It was the most devastating natural disaster in European history, wiping out one-third of the population and causing
economic, social, and political upheaval
It was spread both by the Mongols as they expanded across Asia and by the Asian black rat that also moved westward
In 1347, the bubonic plague arrived from Asia, carried by black rats but transmitted by fleas
When infected rats died, their fleas began biting people, thus spreading the disease
Symptoms included black swelling (buboes) about the size of an egg under the armpit and in the groin, and black spots at
the point of the flea bite
The buboes oozed blood and pus and the spread of boils and black blotches over the entire body from internal bleeding
Intense pain usually brought death within five days, however, those lucky enough to survive developed an immunity
against further infection
Pneumonic plague, a more serious and almost always fatal form of the disease, attacked the lungs and was spread
through the air as victims coughed or sneezed
From China the disease traveled along the trade routes until it reached ports along the Black Sea
Merchant ships carried it to Sicily and Italy and from there to northern Europe
The disease swept throughout the European population, especially in crowded towns and cities
An estimated one third of Europe’s people died between 1347 and 1351 alone
Natural disasters produce extreme psychological reactions
There were acts of heroism and great courage as monks and nuns stayed with the suffering until they themselves died
Living for the moment, some threw themselves into sexual and alcoholic indulgences
Those who could afford to fled to their country estates
To many, the plague had either been sent by God as a punishment for humans’ sins or caused by the evil one, the devil
One group, the flagellants believed they must cleanse themselves of sin to gain God’s forgiveness











They wandered from town to town, flogging each other with whips to win the forgiveness of a God whom they felt had
sent the plague to punish humans for their sinful ways
They began to predict the end of the world which created mass hysteria, until the Pope Clement VI condemned them and
urged public authorities to crush them
An outbreak of anti-Semitism occurred as Jews were accused of causing the plague by poisoning town wells
The worst pogroms occurred in Germany, where entire Jewish communities were wiped out, causing many to flee to
Poland and Russia
People evidently saw life as less valuable as the number of murders doubled in the decade of the 1350s
Still others blamed witchcraft and sorcery for the plague
High demand for laborers gave surviving peasants leverage over their landlords in demanding higher wages
However, demand for goods decreased resulting in falling prices
This arrangement benefited peasants but hurt the nobility as they were able to negotiate an end to their feudal
obligations and receive the freedom to move to cities to find higher wages
Some nobles used force and violence against the peasants to maintain control, which often led to peasant revolts
Scholars agree that the Black Death contributed to the end of feudalism and its economic system of manorialism
32. The Hundred Years’ War –


























Not only did 14th century Europeans have to contend with the worst natural disaster in history, but they had to deal with
war and political instability as well
This conflict from 1337 until 1453 between France and England, was the most famous and most violent of all the wars
It wasn’t one continuous war but rather periods of fighting followed by periods of peace
England and France were the first countries in which kings established strong governments and a new sense of
nationhood
The main cause was that the English king Edward III held territories (Gascony) in southern France, which made him a
vassal of the French king
When the last male member of France’s Capetian dynasty died, Edward claimed the French throne, despite French
opposition
A cousin of the Capetians, Philip, duke of Valois, became king as Philip VI in 1337 and seized Gascony, which led Edward
III of England to declare war on Philip, the so-called king of France
The French assembled a large army (three times the size of the English) with many knights
However, the English introduced the Welsh longbow which made armor and the knight obsolete
The defeat of the select French knights by English commoners signaled a change in the method of warfare (less
expensive to train a bowman than a knight)
During the first half of the war it seemed as if the English would win as they swept through northern France, capturing
most of the land
Joan of Arc (1412 – 1432), a French peasant woman, who in 1429 helped save France whose visions convinced her to go
to the French dauphin, Charles, to allow her to accompany a French army to Orleans
With nothing to lose, Charles conceded and the French armies inspired by her faith found new confidence and defeated
the English at the Battle of Orleans
In July 1429, Charles was crowned King Charles VII of France
The uses of gunpowder and canons spread to Europe and Joan convinced the knights of the importance of artillery and
they began to use it successfully against the English
Mass and prayer before battles became customary because she insisted the army be God-fearing
Inspired by her leadership, French troops began to defeat the English
When Joan was captured by Burgundian allies of the English and burned at the stake as a heretic (for wearing men’s
clothing and stating that she received messages directly from God, her martyrdom only inspired the French even more
By 1450 they had driven the English out of all French territory except the port of Calais on the English Channel
In 1920, Joan of Arc was canonized a saint by the Roman Catholic Church
Knights lost the respect of the people because they pillaged the countryside to make up for their lack of pay
The French victory gave the citizens of that country a feeling of nationalism, a love of their own ethnic identify
France’s victory in the Hundred Years’ War strengthened the French monarchy
Kings throughout Europe begin to develop sovereign power, or sole authority throughout their country
Kings began to limit the power of the nobles and as a result Europeans gave loyalty to these kings and began to feel a
new sense of national identity
Gunpowder and cannons could blast apart castles and forts, thus peasants no longer had to rely on nobles for protection