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Marquette University e-Publications@Marquette Books by Marquette University Faculty 2012 Social Psychology Stephen L. Franzoi Marquette University, [email protected] Follow this and additional works at: http://epublications.marquette.edu/marq_fac-book Part of the Psychology Commons Recommended Citation Franzoi, Stephen L., "Social Psychology" (2012). Books by Marquette University Faculty. Book 192. http://epublications.marquette.edu/marq_fac-book/192 .' Preface ........................................................................................................................xv Chapter 1 ........................................................................................... 2 Introducing Social Psychology ............... ......... ................ ................... 2 , INTRODUCTION ......... ... ......... ..... ....... .... ........... .. .. .. ...... ... .... .. ....2 What Is Social Psychology? .... ................................. ... ........ ... ..... ..3 Social Psychology Studies How We Are Influenced by Others ........... ............ ............ ,... ....... 3 Social Psychology Is More Than Common Sense .. .. ......................~ ................... :................ .. .4 Social Psychology Studies How Social Reality Is Created (and Recreated) . .. ............... ....... .. 5 Social Psychology Is Studied in Both Psychology and Sociology............... ............. ...... ......... 9 Social Psychology Has Both European and American Roots ........................ .... ...... .. ...... .. ..... 9 Organizing Concepts and Perspectives in Social Psychology ................................ 14 The Self Is Shaped by-and Shapes-the Social Environment. .............. ....... ........... .. ...... .. . 14 Our Social Thinking Can Be Automatic or Deliberate .. ........................................ .. .. .. .. .. ..... 17 Culture Shapes Social Behavior. .. ........................ .. ................................ ... .. .. ... .. .. .. .... ...... .. 18 Evolution Shapes Universal Patterns of Social Behavior............. .. ................... .. ... ;.. .. ...... .... 23 Brain Activity Affects and Is Affected by Social Behavior. .. ........ .. .................. ..................... 26 Positive Psychology Is an Emerging Perspective in Social Psychology....... .............. ... ........ .. 28 Web Sites ...... ... .... ........ .... ........... ....... ......... ................. ................. ... ....... ... ... .. .31 Chapter 2 ........................................................................................ .34 Conducting Research in Social Psychology ..................................... 34 INTRODUCTION .......................................... ............................. .34 The Goals and Process of Research ........................................... .35 Two Research Coals Focus on Acquiring and Applying Knowledge .. .. ............. ..... .............. 35 The Research Process Involves a Series of Steps . ............ .... .................................. .. .. .......... 36 Meta-Analysis Examines the Outcomes of Many Studies . ............ ............... ............. .. ........ .43 One Strength of the Scientific Method Is Its Self-Correcting Na ture . ................. .. .. .... .. ...... .. 44 Common Scientific Methods .. .... ................. ......... .... ................. ..... .. .................. 46 Description Is the Coal of Observa tional Research ....... ..... ........ .............. ..... ....... .............. 46 Correlational Research Assesses the Direction and Strength of the Relationship Between Variables ....... .. .. ....................................... ..... ..... 50 Experimental Research Can Determine Ca use-Effect Relationships ............. ... .... .... ............. 55 The Promise and Caution in Using Emerging Technologies .. ................................. 58 Social Psychologists Are In creasingly Using New Technologies ............. ............. ................ 58 Th e Study of Actual Behavior Is Declining in Social Psychology............. ............. ................ 62 Web Sites .. .. ....... .............. .. .... ............... . ................ ......... .. .............................. 6.3 viii Table of Contents - Chapter 3.......................................................................................... 66 The Self ................................... :................................. ........ ............... 66 INTRODUGION .. ...... ... .................... : ..... .......... ..... ... ......... ...... . 67 The Self as Bath Active Agent and Object of Attention ... ..... ....... 67 Conteml)OrarV Self Theories Are Based 00 the Insights of james and Mead. .... ............ .... ... 67 Self-Awareness Is Reflective Thinking........... ............. .............. ....................... .. ......... ......... 68 Culture and Self-Awareness ............ ........... ......... ..... ..... ..... ....... .. .... .. .... .......... ...... ......... ... .71 Self-Regulation Is the Self's Most Important Function ......................... .... ... ...... ....... ... ..... ... .73 The Self as a Knowledge Structure ................................................ .. .... ... .. ..... ... .. 78 Self-Concept Involves a Network of Self-Aspects ........... .............. .. ....... .... ... ..... .... ........... .. .78 Cultural Beliefs about Self-Group Relationships Shape Self-Concept. ..... .. ...... .... .. ....... ...... . 80 Cultural Beliefs about Gender Shape Self-Concept. ... ... ..... .. ... ............. .. ...... ............ .. ......... 84 Social Identities Establish " What " and " Where " WeAre as Social Beings . .... .. ... .. ......... ....... 85 Presenting the Self to Others ... ................. ......... d • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 88 Self-Presentations Are Either Consciously or Automatically Constructed. ... ... .. ........ .. .... ...... 88 Self-Presentation Strategi es Differ in Their Goals . ... ..... .............. ........... ....... .. ............. ....... 90 Evaluating the Self ... .. ... .... .............. .. ... ..... ....... .... ... ... ..... .... .................. ........... 95 Self-Esteem Influences How We Approach and Respond to Life Challenges ........ ... .... ........ 95 Self-Enhancement and Self-Verifica tion Motives Conflict in Low Self-Esteem Persons ...... ..... 97 There Is a Dark Side to High Self-Esteem . .. ..... .... ........ ....... .... .... .......... .............. .. .. .... ........ 98 In Social Relationships, Self-Esteem Is Maintained Through Social Reflection and Social Comparison ........... .. ........ ... .... ... .......... .. .... ...... 100 Applications ............ ..... .... ... .... ......... .. ............... .... ... .......... ........... ............... . 1 03 Web Sites ................................................... ·..... ..... .. .. ..... ...... .. .. ......... ............. 105 Chapter 4....................................................................................... 108 Social Cognition and Person Perception .. ......... .. ................... ....... 108 INTRODUGION ............ ..... .. ..... .... ... ..... ... ..... ... ............ ..... ... .. 109 How Does Automatic Thinking Help Us Make Sense of Social Information? ...... ...... ...... ....... ..................... ... ..... 110 We Are Categorizing Creatures ........ ... ....•....... ... ......... ....... .... .. .. ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... . 110 Schemas Affect What Information We Notice and Later Remember.... .............. .... ..... ....... 11 1 Schemas Can Be Situationally or Chronically Activated. ...... .......... .. ..... ............... ........... .. 113 Heuristics Are Time-Saving Menta l Shortcuts . ..... .. ......... .... ... ....... ... .... ......... .. ..... ........... .. 116 How Does Deliberate Thinking Help Us Make Sense of Past Events? ................... 120 The Hindsight Bias Is Fueled by Our Desire for Sense Making ...... ... ...... .......... ................. 120 Counterfactual Thinking Likely Follows Negative and Unexpected Events . ... .. ..... .......... ... 121 Suppressing Thoughts Can S.ometimes 8ackfire . ....... .. .......... .. ..................... ......... ........ ... 123 Person Perception ............................................................ ...... .... ......... ... ........ 124 Nonverba l Behaviors of Others Shape Our Impressions of Them . ....... ... ..... ... .. ... .......... ... 124 Culture and Gender Influence the Expression of Nonverba l Cues ... ............. ........ ... .. .. .. .... 129 Our Brains Are Wired For Gossip .. ............. ... ... ........... ... ..... .. ......... .... ... ... ....... ..... .. .... ..... . 131 Most of Us Are Poor Deception Detectors . ...... ... ........ .. ......... .. ... ......... .. ........ .... ............. . 132 We Develop Implicit Personality Theories Based on Central Traits . ......... .. .. ... .. ... ... ........ ... 134 We Often Seek Information to fonfirm Our First Impressions .................. ... .. ... ............. .... 136 • Table of Contents Making Attributions ... ....... .... .. ... .... .... ... ......... ... ... ... ........... ... .. ....... , .. ...... ... .... . 137 We Rely Upon Particular In formation When Explaining People's Actions . ..... .... ..•..... ...... .. 137 Correspondent Inference Theory Assumes that People Prefer Making Dispositional Attributions . .. .. ....... .. .... ......... ... ... .... ... ..... ...... .. .............. . 739 The Covariation Model Explains Attributions Derived from Multiple Observa tion Points ... 747 There Are Biases in the Attribution Process . ................ ........ ........ .... ................ .. ............... 743 Making Attributions Involves BothAutomatic and Deliberate Thinking . .... .. ........ .............. 748 Applications .. .. .. ........... .. ........ .............. ......... :... ........... .. .. .... .. .... .... .... ... : ........ 150 Web Sites ... ...... .. ... .. .. .... .. ...... ... ... .... .... ... ........ .. ..... .... .. ........... ........ .. .. .. .... .. ... 153 Chapter 5 ....................................................................................... 156 Attitudes and Persuasion ... ........... ............. ......................... ...... ..... 156 INTRODUGION .. .... .... ....... .... .. .. ... ...... .. .. ... .. ................. .. ....... 15 7 The Noture of Attitudes .. .... .. .. .. .. .... .. .. ... .... ..... ...... ......... ......... 1 57 Attitudes Are Positi ve or Negative Eva luations of Obj ects ................ .. ........ ................ .. ..... 758 Implicit A ttitudes May Underlie Explicit A ttitudes ........ ... .......... .... ~ ......... ............ ... ....... .... 759 Reference Groups Shape Socia l and Political Attitudes . .................... .. .... .... ....... .. ............ 762 How Does Automatic Thinking Shape Attitudes and Behavior? .. .............. .. .... .. ... 163 Mere Exposure Can Lead to Positive Attitudes ......... .. ........ .... .................. ... ....... .. .... ......... 763 Attitu des Can Form Through Classical Conditioning .. .. ........ ............... .. .... .. ...................... 766 Reinforcement and Punishment Can Shape Attitudes ....................................... ........... .... . 76 7 A ttitudes Are In fluen ced by Changes in Facial E.~press ion, H ead Movement, and Body Posture . ................ .. .................................... ...... ....... .. .... 768 How Does Deliberate Thinking Shape Attitudes and Behavior? ................ .. ...... .. 1 71 Cognitive Dissonance Theor y Asserts that Rationalization Shapes A ttitudes . .. .. .. ..... .. ...... . 77 7 Cognitive Consistency Is Not a Universal Motive. ...... .... .. .. ........ .. .. .. .... .. .. .. .. .. ........ .......... 778 SelF-Perception Theory Contends that Behavior Causes Attitudes . .. .... ...... ..... .. ......... .... ... 780 The Th eory of Planned Behavior Explains " Th ought-Through " Actions . .. ........ .. ................ 782 The Nature of Persuasion .. ........ .. .. .. ................ .. .. .. ...... .. .... .. ................. .. .. .. .... . 184 Persuasion Can O ccur Through Both Effortful and Effortless Thinking . .. .. .. ................... .. .. 784 Persuader Credibility and Attractiveness Can Affect Persuasion ............ .. .... ....... .. ............. 787 Rapid Speech Encourages Peripheral-Route Persuasion While Hindering Central-Route Processing............ ........ ..... ............. .. .......... .... .. .. .. ..... 790 Em otions Motivate, Enhance, and Hinder Persuasion . .. ...... .. .... .... ............ .... .... ................ 797 Two -Sided Messages Inoculate Audiences Against Opposing Views . .... .. .............. .. .. ...... .. 793 We Can Develop Attitude Certainty by Actively Trying to Counterargue.......... .. ............... 795 Appl ications .. ... ............... .. .. .... ............... ...... ... .... ..... ....... ..... ..... .. .................. 199 Web Sites ... .. ................... ...... .......... ..... ... ........ ............... .. ..... .. .. .. .... ... ........ .. .202 Chapter 6 Stereotyping, Prejudice, and Discrimination ............... 204 INTRODUGION ........ ............. .. .. ...... ...... .. .. .. .. ... ...... .... .... ... ... . 205 Cognitive, Affective, and Behaviorial Components of Intergroup Conflict .. .. ........ .. .......... .......... .... ...... ..... 207 ix x Table of Contents _ Stereotypes Are Beliefs About Social Croups . ... ... ...... ... .. ...... .... ... .... ..... ...... ... ..... ..... ........ 207 Prejudice Is an Attitude and Discrimination Is an Action . ............... .. ............. ................ ... 277 There Are Three Basic Forms of Prejudice . ......................... '.' .... .......... .... ....... ........ .. ......... 273 Common Targets of Intolerance in Contemporary Society ... : .. ... ... ... ............. .. ... 215 Race-Based Appearance Cues Can Trigger Discrimination . ............................... ..... .......... 277 Modern-Day Racism Is More Ambivalent than Openly Hostile . ............................. .......... 279 Sexism Has Both a Hostile and a Benevolent Comp onent. .... .. ....... .................................. 223 Intolerance Based on Weight andSexual Orientation 15 Often Accepted... .. .. ..... ............... 227 Stigmatized Croups Can Experien ce Stereotype 1:/lreat. .. .. .......... .. ................... .... ..... ....... 230 What Motives and Social Factors Shape Prejudice and Discrimination? ...... ...... .... 234 Ingroup Members Are Favored over Outgroup Members . ............... ... ................ ......... .. ... 234 Intergroup Competition Can Lead to Prejudice ....... .... .. ...... ......... .................................... 236 . Prejudice Can Serve as a justification for Oppression .............................................. .... .. ... 240 Authoritarianism 15 Associated with Hostility Toward Outgroups ............. ........................ .243 Can We Reduce Intergroup 13ias and Intolerance? .. .. .. ............ ............ .............. 246 Prejudice and Discrimination Can Be Reduced by Monitoring Stereotyped Thinking ........ 247 Targets of Prejudice Can Become Positive Social Change Agents . .............. .. .. .. .. .............. . 249 The Contact Hypothesis Identifies Social Conditions That Reduce Intergroup Conflict. .... 250 Applications ........ ..... .... ..... ........ .. .... ... ....... ...... ..... ................................... ...... 253 The 13ig Picture ........... .. ............................ .... .. ...... ................... ......... .......... ... .255 Web Sites ...... ..................... ..... .. ................... ........................... ........... ........... 255 Chapter 7 Social Influence ............ :......................... ...... ............... 258 INTRODUGION ....................... .... .... ..................................... .259 What Is Sociallnfluence? .................... ............ ....... .... .... ........ 261 Conformity, Compliance, and Obedience Are Different Types of Sociallnfluence ............. 261 People with Socia l Power Are More Likely to Initiate Action . ................. ...... ...................... 262 Classic and Contemporary Conformity Research ....... .. .... .... .. ... .......... ............... 263 Sherif Analyzed Conformity to an Ambiguous Reality. .. ......... .... ............. .. .. ...................... 263 SpecifiC Situations Can Automatically Activate Specific Social Norms .................. ............ 266 Asch Analyzed Conformity to a Una nimous Majority. .... ...................... .. ......... ........ ........ .268 Normative and Informational Influence Shape Conformity. .... ..................... .. .............. ..... 270 Schachter In vestigated the Rejection of the Nonconformist. ...... ........ .. ...... .. .... .. .............. .272 What Factors Influence Conformity? .... ..... .............. ...................... .... ................ 275 Situational Factors Impact Conformity. .... .. .... ... .... ... ...... ... ... ... .............. ... ... ... ........ .. ... .. ... 275 Personal Fa ctors Influence Conformity.................................... .. ........ .............. ......... ........ 277 Cultures Differ in Their Conf9rmity Patterns ............ .... ........... ...... .................. ...... .. .. ........ 279 The Minority Can Influence the Majority................... .. ............. .. .................................. .. .. 280 Conformity 15 Sometimes Automatically Activated . .......... .. ................ .... ...... ... ...... ... .... .... 283 Compliance ... ...... ............... .... ... .. .... ... .. .. ... .. ............ ........ .... ..... .. .... .......... .... .284 Manipulating Moods and Invoking Norms Foster Compliance ......................... .. ............ .. 284 Two-Step Strategies Are Effective Compliance Traps . ................... .... ...... ................ ....... .... 286 Obedience ... ....... .... ...................... ..... ................ .. ...... .... .... .... .............. ... ...... 291 Milgram 's Research Suggests tlJat Destructive Obedience 15 Fairly Common .................... 29 1 • Table of Contents Recent Studies Provide Further Insights into Milgram 's Original Findings . .... ,.... ......... ..... .. 294 Observing Others Defy Authority Grea tly Reduces Obedience ......... ..... .... .... ... .. ....... ...... 296 Toword a Unified Understanding of Social Influence .... ......... .. ... ... .. .... ...... .. .. .. ...297 Social Impact Theory Explains Influence Strength . .... .. ........... ... ...... .... ... .. .. ...................... 298 Applications ... ... .... ..... ................. .......... ........... .... .. ....... : ..................... .. ........ 000 The Big Picture ................................................................................ .... .. .. ....... 002 Web Sites ....... .... ... .. .... ...... .................. .. ................ ....... .... ...... .. .. .. ........ .. " ..... 000 Chapter 8 Group Behavior ................... .. ..................................... .306 INTRODUCTION ...................... ......... ..... ... .. ........ ....... .... ......... 007 The Nature of Groups .. .................. ........................... ... .......... 007 Group Success Fosters Social Identification .. ... ..... ... .... ......... ... ........... .. ..... ......... 007 Groups Differ in Th eir Social Cohesiveness . ............... ........... ............................ ............... 308 Groups Accomplish Instrumenta l Tasks and Satisfy Socioemotiona! Needs ... .... ..... ..... .... .. 3 11 Group Structure DevelopsQuickly and Changes Slowly. ...... .... ......... .. ............... ..... .... .... .3 12 There Are Five Phases to Group Membership . .... ..... ......... ... ........ .. ........... .. ... .. ... .... .. ... ... .3 13 Group Influence o n Individual Behavior .... ..... ................................. ... .............. 016 The Presence of Others Can En ergize Us . ... ....... ........ ... ......... .... ..... ... ...... .. .... .... ........... .. .3 16 Th e Presence of Others Can Hide Us . ............... .. ... ........................................ .. ... ..... ...... .318 Being Both Energized and Hidden Can Lower Our Inhibitions . ..... ...... .... ... ... ..... ..... ..... ... .32 1 Decision Making in Groups ........................ .... ........ .. .. .. ............ .... .... .. .. .. ... .. ..... 025 Group D ecision Making Occurs in Stages and Follows Va rious Rules ........ ...... ...... ........ .. .325 Group Discussion Enhances Majority Opinions . ........... ......... ... .. ...................... .... ....... .... 328 Consensus Seeking Overrides Critica l Analys is in Groupthink . .......... .. ........... ................. .330 Leadership ........ ... .. ....... .......... ...... ...... ...... ...... ......... ...................... ...... ......... 000 A Leader Is an In fluen ce Agent. ...... .. ........................................................... .... ......... .. ..... 333 Transformational Leaders Inspire Followers. .......... ... .... .. ....... ...... .. ... ..... ... ... .................... .334 The Contingency Model Is an Interactionist View of Leadership .................. .......... .. ......... 335 Gender and Culture Can Influence Leadership Style. .... ...... .. .. .. .. .......... ... ....... ...... .. .. .. .. .. .33 7 Group Interests Versus Individual Interests .. ...... .. .... .. .. .. ..... ........ ..... ... ....... .... .... 040 Socia l Dilemmas Occur When Short-term and Long-term Interests Conflict. ..................... 340 Cooperation Is Necessary to Resolve Social Dilemmas .... .. .......................... ...... ... .. ...... .... 3 42 Applications ............. ......... .. ... ..... ............. ........... .......................................... 044 The Big Picture ........ .. ..................... ..... ............... ............. ....................... ........ 046 Web Sites ........................ .. ......................................... .. ................ ........ ... ...... 046 Chapter 9 Interpersonal Attraction .. ............................................ 348 INTRODUCTION ............ ..... ......... .... .. ..... ... ......... ... ........ ...... ... 049 Affiliation Needs .............................................. ..................... 050 Two Reasons for Affiliation Are Comparison and Exchange . ............ .......... .. .. .. ................ .350 Our Evolutionary Heritage and Biology Influence Our Affiliation Desires ......... .... ............ 35 1 xi xii Table of Contents _ Socialization Shapes Our Inborn Affiliation Tendencies ........ .•.......... .. ........... .... ...... .. ...... .352 Characteristics of the Situation and Attraction .... . : .... .. ... ...... ... .. ..... .. ..... .... .... .... ..055 Close Proximity Fosters Liking ... .. .. ............................. ...... .. ........... ........ ............ ............... 355 Our Affiliation Desires Increase with Anxiety.. .... ...... .. ................................................. .... .357 Characteristics of Others and Attraction .. ..... ... ... .. ... ....... ........... ........ .. .. .. .. ........ 062 We Are Drawn Toward the Physically Attractive .............................. ............ ....... ... ......... ..363 There Are Gender·Based Attractiveness Standards ............................ ............... ........... .... .365 Gender· Based Attractiveness Standards Shape Body Esteem ...................................... .... .370 Social Comparison Influences Attractiveness /udf¥rlents ............... .. ................. .............. .. 371 Birds of a Feather Really Do Flock Together. .............. .. .. .. ..... ........... ....... ............ ........ ..... 3 73 We Like Those Who Like Us .. .... .................... .. .................. .. .. ....... ......... .... ... ..... .. ....... ..... .376 When Social Interaction Becomes Problematic. ....... ..... ....... ......... ..... .. ... ......... .. 077 Social Anxiety Can Keep Us Isola ted from Others ........ .. .. ... ............. ... ....... ...... ............... .377 Lonelin ess Is the Consequence of Social Isolation . ..................................... .. .. .. .. ......... .... .379 Applications .. ... ... ..... .. ........ ... .......... .. ............ .. : .. ....... .. .... ..... ....... .. ... ............. 080 The Big Picture ....... ........ .............. ....... ..... .. ....... ............... ....... ......... ... .. ...... ... 086 Web Sites .. .. ... ... .. ..... ....... ..... ... .. ...... .... ................. .... .. .... ... ............... ........ ..... 086 Chapter 10 Intimate Relationships ........ ..................... ......... ...... .. ... 388 INTRODUGION .... ..... .. ........ .. .... ... .. ........ ... .............. ........ ..... .089 What Is Intimacy? ................. ... .. ...... ...... ...... ............... .... ... .. .. 090 Intimacy Involves Including Another in Your Self~ Con cept. ......... ......... .... ......................... 3 90 Parent-Child Attachment.and Later Adult Relationships .. .. ...... .. .. .............. .... ..... 094 Attachment Is an Inborn Adaptive Response .............. .. ...... .. .......... ..... .. .. .. ...... ............ .... .394 Attachment Styles In fluence Romantic Relationships ................................ .. .. ................ .. .395 Friendship .............. ..... ........... ..... ......................... ... .. .. .. .. ....... .. ............. ... .... .. 400 Self· Disclosure Shapes Friendship Development and Maintenance . .. .... .... ................... ... .400 Gender Differences Exist in H eterosexual Friendships . .................. .......... .. ............. .... .... . .403 Cross·Sex H eterosexual FriendshipsGravitate to an " Intimacy Mean ': .... .. .... .... .... ... ...... .. . .406 " Friends-with-Benefits" Relationships Pose Unique Challenges and Dangers ... ...... ......... .. 407 Gender Differences Disappear in Same-Sex Homosexual Friendships .......... .............. .. ..... 408 Important Barriers to Long-Distance Friendships Are Falling ............. .. .................... .... ...... 409 Romantic Relationships .. ... .. ........... ..... ............ ....... ....... .. ....... .............. .... ....... 410 Culture Shapes How We Think About Romantic Love . ........ .. .................. .. ...................... .410 Online Romance and Speed Dating Follow Similar Rules as Face-to-Face Romance . .. .. ... .4 13 Passionate Love Can Be Triggered by Excitation Transfer.... .. .......................... ...... .... ........ .4 14 Companionate Love Is More,Stable and Enduring than Passionate Love ...... .. ............... .. .. .420 Women and Men May Differ in Th eir Experience of Love ..................... .. .... .... .................. 421 Will Love Endure? .. .... .. ...... ..... ... .............. .... ....... ....... .... ... ... ..... .. ........ ........... 424 Social Disapproval of One 's Partner Harms Relationship Stability. .. .. ........ .. .......... ......... ... 424 People Are H appiest with Romantic Equity. ......... .. ..... .......... .... ..... .. ..... ............. ....... ...... .424 Self-Esteem Can Both Facilitate and Undermine Romantic Love ....................................... 425 Romantic H appiness Is Based on Both Positive I/Iusions and Accurate Judgments ........... .426 Social Support Predicts Relatiof1ship Satisfaction . ....... ........ ............................................. 428 • Table of Contents xiii We Are Meaner to Those We Love Than We Are to Strangers..... ..... ......... ..... .... .. ......... ... .. 429 People Use Different Strategies to Cope with a Troubled Relationship . ......... ...... ............. .431 Romantic Breakups Often Cause Emotional Distress . ..... ....... ............ ... ..... .... .................. .432 Applications ...... ... .......... .... ...... .. ... ....... .... ... ........... ...... .. ..... ............ ..... .. ....... 4:::14 The Big Picture .... .... .. ... ........ ..... ... ..... .. .. ...... .... .. ... .. .. ...... :.. ... ..... ... .. ...... .. .. .. .... 4:::17 Web Sites .... .. ............. ...... .............. ... .. ............ .. ... .. ....... .. .. .......... ........ .... .... ..4:::18 Chapter 11 Aggression ................................................................... 440 INTRODUGION .... ...... ....... ... ......... ........... ... ....... ... ...... .... .... .. 441 What Is Aggression? ... .. ........... .. .. ....... .. ......... ... ... ............ .. ... .441 Aggression Is In tentional Harm ... ............... ............... .. .... ... ... ................. ...................... .. .. 441 Instrumental and H ostileAggression Have Different Goa ls....................... .. ....... .............. .443 Gender and Personality Moderate the Expression of Aggression ............... .... .................... 444 Intergroup Aggression Is Often More Extreme than Interpersonall)ggression .................. .447 The Biology of Ag gression ..... .. .... .. ............ .......... ..... ..... .. ....... .. .. ...... .... .. .. .... .. 448 Evolution Shaped O ur Aggressive Behavior Patterns . .. ...... ....... ............... ........ .. ...... ........ .449 Biological Factors Influence Aggressive Behavior... ... ..... .................................. ... ....... ...... . 450 Aggression as a Reaction to Negative Affect ...... .... .. .. ....... .... ................ ........ .. .452 The Frustration -Aggression H ypothesis Asserts that Frustration Triggers Aggression . ......... 452 U npleasant Situations Can Activate Aggressive !houghts and Associations . ........... .. ....... .453 Alcohol Consumption Increases the Likelih ood of Aggression . ...... .... .... .... .. .. .... .. ...... .. .... .458 Excitation Transfer Can Intensify H ostility-based Aggression ..... .................... .................... 460 Learning Aggressive Behavior ..... ..... .. .... .. .... ..... .. .... ... .. .. .. .. ............ .. .. ... .. .. .... .. 461 Social Learning Th eory Emphasizesthe Shaping of Aggressive Behavior. ........ .... ........... .... 461 Media and Video Vio lence Fosters Aggressive Behavior. ................ .... ........... ...... ...... .. .. .... 464 The " Culture of Honor " Encourages Male Violence. .... .... ....... .. .................... ................... 467 Sexual Aggression ........ ........ .. ...... ........... ......... ... .. .... .... .. ...... .. ... ...... .......... .. .. 469 Pornography Promo tes the "Rape Myth " and May Increase Violence Against Women . ..... 469 Culture· Based Sexual Scripts Make Acquaintance Rape More Likely.......... .... ..... ...... ....... .474 Reducing Aggression .... ........... .. ... ... .... .......... .. .... .... ....................... .. .. .. ....... .. .4 76 Punishment Can Both Decrease and Increase Aggression . ... , ............ .. .......... ........... ........ 476 Inducing Incompatible Responses Can Inhibit Aggression ................... .. ............ .... ........ ... 476 Teaching Nonaggressive Responses to Provocation Can Control Aggression ................. .... 477 Applications .. .. .. ... .. .. ...... ........ .... .... .................. .... .. .... .... .. ... .. .. .. ...... ...... .. ... ... 479 The Big Picture ................ .. .... ..... ....... .. .. .. ........... .. .. .......... .... ... .... .......... .. ....... 480 Web Sites .. .. .. ... .. .. ..... ..... .......... .... .. .. .............. .. .... ........... ........ ..... .... .. ... ........ 481 Chapter 12 Prosocial Behavior: Helping Others ........................... .484 INTRODUGION ... ....... .. .................... .... .. .. .. .... ...... ..... .. ...... ... .485 Why Do We Help? .. .... .. .......... .... .. ........ ..... ... .. ............. .... .. .... 486 Th ere are Two Basic Forms of H elping .............. ....... ..... ....... ................. .... .................... ... 486 xiv Table of Contents _ Helping Is Consistent with Evolutionary Theor y. ........ ... ..... ............ ..... ................... .. ....... .488 Social Norms Define the Rules of Helping Others ............................................................ 490 Politica l and Social Class Differences Shape Willingness to Help ..................................... .490 Individualists and Collectivists Differ in Their H elping TendencieS ................... ................ .492 Gender and Personality Influence Helping Responses ........ .. .............. .......... .................... 493 Learning to Be a Helper Invo lves Both Observation and Direct Reinforcement................. 496 _When Do We Help? ................. .. ........... .......... ... .... .. .. ............. ......... ... .... ........ 500 Bystander Intervention In volves a Series of Decisions . ..................... .............. .................. 500 Outcome and Information Dependence Producr<. th e Audience Inhibition Effect. .... .. ....... 503 Diffusion of Responsibility (ncreases with the Number of Bystanders . ...... ........ .. ............ .. 505 Bystander Intervention Is Also Shaped by Emo tional Arousal and Cost-Reward Assessments ... ... ........................................... ........ ............ .508 Positive and Negative Moods Can Either Increase or Decrease Helping ....... ............... ..... 510 The Empathy-Altruism HypotheSiS Contends that Empathy Produces Altruistic Motivation ................................... ... ............... ......... 512 Whom Do We Help? ....................... ......... ...... ........................... ..... ........... ...... 516 We Tend to H elp Similar Others ......................... ...... .......... .. ................. ..... ................... :.516 We Help Deserving Others, but We Also Blame Victims ...... ...... .................. ... .. ................ 518 Are There Hidden Costs For Help Recipients? ............ .... .. ....... .................. ...... ... 520 Being Unable to Reciprocate Help Can Create Stress ........... .. .... ...... ...... ...... .................... 520 Receiving Help Can Threaten Self-Esteem ........ .............. ...... .. ............ ..... ......................... 521 Applications ...... ......... ..................................................... ..... .................. ..... ..523 The Dig Picture ............................ .... ......................... ... .... ............ .. ........ .. ....... 524 Web Sites ............................. .. .. ........................ ............ .. .. ............... ..... .. ... .... 524 Appendix ...................................................................................................................526 Glossary ............................................................................................. ....................... 540 References ................................................................................................................. 548 Text and Line An Credits .......................................................................................... 606 Photo Credits ............................................................................................................ 608 Name Index ............................................................................................................... 610 Subject Index ............................................................................................................ 626