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Books by Marquette University Faculty
2012
Social Psychology
Stephen L. Franzoi
Marquette University, [email protected]
Follow this and additional works at: http://epublications.marquette.edu/marq_fac-book
Part of the Psychology Commons
Recommended Citation
Franzoi, Stephen L., "Social Psychology" (2012). Books by Marquette University Faculty. Book 192.
http://epublications.marquette.edu/marq_fac-book/192
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Preface ........................................................................................................................xv
Chapter 1 ........................................................................................... 2
Introducing Social Psychology ............... ......... ................ ................... 2
, INTRODUCTION ......... ... ......... ..... ....... .... ........... .. .. .. ...... ... .... .. ....2
What Is Social Psychology? .... ................................. ... ........ ... ..... ..3
Social Psychology Studies How We Are Influenced by Others ........... ............ ............ ,... ....... 3
Social Psychology Is More Than Common Sense .. .. ......................~ ................... :................ .. .4
Social Psychology Studies How Social Reality Is Created (and Recreated) . .. ............... ....... .. 5
Social Psychology Is Studied in Both Psychology and Sociology............... ............. ...... ......... 9
Social Psychology Has Both European and American Roots ........................ .... ...... .. ...... .. ..... 9
Organizing Concepts and Perspectives in Social Psychology ................................ 14
The Self Is Shaped by-and Shapes-the Social Environment. .............. ....... ........... .. ...... .. . 14
Our Social Thinking Can Be Automatic or Deliberate .. ........................................ .. .. .. .. .. ..... 17
Culture Shapes Social Behavior. .. ........................ .. ................................ ... .. .. ... .. .. .. .... ...... .. 18
Evolution Shapes Universal Patterns of Social Behavior............. .. ................... .. ... ;.. .. ...... .... 23
Brain Activity Affects and Is Affected by Social Behavior. .. ........ .. .................. ..................... 26
Positive Psychology Is an Emerging Perspective in Social Psychology....... .............. ... ........ .. 28
Web Sites ...... ... .... ........ .... ........... ....... ......... ................. ................. ... ....... ... ... .. .31
Chapter 2 ........................................................................................ .34
Conducting Research in Social Psychology ..................................... 34
INTRODUCTION .......................................... ............................. .34
The Goals and Process of Research ........................................... .35
Two Research Coals Focus on Acquiring and Applying Knowledge .. .. ............. ..... .............. 35
The Research Process Involves a Series of Steps . ............ .... .................................. .. .. .......... 36
Meta-Analysis Examines the Outcomes of Many Studies . ............ ............... ............. .. ........ .43
One Strength of the Scientific Method Is Its Self-Correcting Na ture . ................. .. .. .... .. ...... .. 44
Common Scientific Methods .. .... ................. ......... .... ................. ..... .. .................. 46
Description Is the Coal of Observa tional Research ....... ..... ........ .............. ..... ....... .............. 46
Correlational Research Assesses the Direction and
Strength of the Relationship Between Variables ....... .. .. ....................................... ..... ..... 50
Experimental Research Can Determine Ca use-Effect Relationships ............. ... .... .... ............. 55
The Promise and Caution in Using Emerging Technologies .. ................................. 58
Social Psychologists Are In creasingly Using New Technologies ............. ............. ................ 58
Th e Study of Actual Behavior Is Declining in Social Psychology............. ............. ................ 62
Web Sites .. .. ....... .............. .. .... ............... . ................ ......... .. .............................. 6.3
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Chapter 3.......................................................................................... 66
The Self ................................... :................................. ........ ............... 66
INTRODUGION .. ...... ... .................... : ..... .......... ..... ... ......... ...... . 67
The Self as Bath Active Agent and Object of Attention ... ..... ....... 67
Conteml)OrarV Self Theories Are Based 00 the Insights of james and Mead. .... ............ .... ... 67
Self-Awareness Is Reflective Thinking........... ............. .............. ....................... .. ......... ......... 68
Culture and Self-Awareness ............ ........... ......... ..... ..... ..... ....... .. .... .. .... .......... ...... ......... ... .71
Self-Regulation Is the Self's Most Important Function ......................... .... ... ...... ....... ... ..... ... .73
The Self as a Knowledge Structure ................................................ .. .... ... .. ..... ... .. 78
Self-Concept Involves a Network of Self-Aspects ........... .............. .. ....... .... ... ..... .... ........... .. .78
Cultural Beliefs about Self-Group Relationships Shape Self-Concept. ..... .. ...... .... .. ....... ...... . 80
Cultural Beliefs about Gender Shape Self-Concept. ... ... ..... .. ... ............. .. ...... ............ .. ......... 84
Social Identities Establish " What " and " Where " WeAre as Social Beings . .... .. ... .. ......... ....... 85
Presenting the Self to Others ... ................. .........
d
• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
88
Self-Presentations Are Either Consciously or Automatically Constructed. ... ... .. ........ .. .... ...... 88
Self-Presentation Strategi es Differ in Their Goals . ... ..... .............. ........... ....... .. ............. ....... 90
Evaluating the Self ... .. ... .... .............. .. ... ..... ....... .... ... ... ..... .... .................. ........... 95
Self-Esteem Influences How We Approach and Respond to Life Challenges ........ ... .... ........ 95
Self-Enhancement and Self-Verifica tion Motives Conflict in Low Self-Esteem Persons ...... ..... 97
There Is a Dark Side to High Self-Esteem . .. ..... .... ........ ....... .... .... .......... .............. .. .. .... ........ 98
In Social Relationships, Self-Esteem Is Maintained
Through Social Reflection and Social Comparison ........... .. ........ ... .... ... .......... .. .... ...... 100
Applications ............ ..... .... ... .... ......... .. ............... .... ... .......... ........... ............... . 1 03
Web Sites ................................................... ·..... ..... .. .. ..... ...... .. .. ......... ............. 105
Chapter 4....................................................................................... 108
Social Cognition and Person Perception .. ......... .. ................... ....... 108
INTRODUGION ............ ..... .. ..... .... ... ..... ... ..... ... ............ ..... ... .. 109
How Does Automatic Thinking
Help Us Make Sense of Social Information? ...... ...... ...... ....... ..................... ... ..... 110
We Are Categorizing Creatures ........ ... ....•....... ... ......... ....... .... .. .. ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... . 110
Schemas Affect What Information We Notice and Later Remember.... .............. .... ..... ....... 11 1
Schemas Can Be Situationally or Chronically Activated. ...... .......... .. ..... ............... ........... .. 113
Heuristics Are Time-Saving Menta l Shortcuts . ..... .. ......... .... ... ....... ... .... ......... .. ..... ........... .. 116
How Does Deliberate Thinking Help Us Make Sense of Past Events? ................... 120
The Hindsight Bias Is Fueled by Our Desire for Sense Making ...... ... ...... .......... ................. 120
Counterfactual Thinking Likely Follows Negative and Unexpected Events . ... .. ..... .......... ... 121
Suppressing Thoughts Can S.ometimes 8ackfire . ....... .. .......... .. ..................... ......... ........ ... 123
Person Perception ............................................................ ...... .... ......... ... ........ 124
Nonverba l Behaviors of Others Shape Our Impressions of Them . ....... ... ..... ... .. ... .......... ... 124
Culture and Gender Influence the Expression of Nonverba l Cues ... ............. ........ ... .. .. .. .... 129
Our Brains Are Wired For Gossip .. ............. ... ... ........... ... ..... .. ......... .... ... ... ....... ..... .. .... ..... . 131
Most of Us Are Poor Deception Detectors . ...... ... ........ .. ......... .. ... ......... .. ........ .... ............. . 132
We Develop Implicit Personality Theories Based on Central Traits . ......... .. .. ... .. ... ... ........ ... 134
We Often Seek Information to fonfirm Our First Impressions .................. ... .. ... ............. .... 136
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Making Attributions ... ....... .... .. ... .... .... ... ......... ... ... ... ........... ... .. ....... , .. ...... ... .... . 137
We Rely Upon Particular In formation When Explaining People's Actions . ..... .... ..•..... ...... .. 137
Correspondent Inference Theory Assumes that People
Prefer Making Dispositional Attributions . .. .. ....... .. .... ......... ... ... .... ... ..... ...... .. .............. . 739
The Covariation Model Explains Attributions Derived from Multiple Observa tion Points ... 747
There Are Biases in the Attribution Process . ................ ........ ........ .... ................ .. ............... 743
Making Attributions Involves BothAutomatic and Deliberate Thinking . .... .. ........ .............. 748
Applications .. .. .. ........... .. ........ .............. ......... :... ........... .. .. .... .. .... .... .... ... : ........ 150
Web Sites ... ...... .. ... .. .. .... .. ...... ... ... .... .... ... ........ .. ..... .... .. ........... ........ .. .. .. .... .. ... 153
Chapter 5 ....................................................................................... 156
Attitudes and Persuasion ... ........... ............. ......................... ...... ..... 156
INTRODUGION .. .... .... ....... .... .. .. ... ...... .. .. ... .. ................. .. ....... 15 7
The Noture of Attitudes .. .... .. .. .. .. .... .. .. ... .... ..... ...... ......... ......... 1 57
Attitudes Are Positi ve or Negative Eva luations of Obj ects ................ .. ........ ................ .. ..... 758
Implicit A ttitudes May Underlie Explicit A ttitudes ........ ... .......... .... ~ ......... ............ ... ....... .... 759
Reference Groups Shape Socia l and Political Attitudes . .................... .. .... .... ....... .. ............ 762
How Does Automatic Thinking Shape Attitudes and Behavior? .. .............. .. .... .. ... 163
Mere Exposure Can Lead to Positive Attitudes ......... .. ........ .... .................. ... ....... .. .... ......... 763
Attitu des Can Form Through Classical Conditioning .. .. ........ ............... .. .... .. ...................... 766
Reinforcement and Punishment Can Shape Attitudes ....................................... ........... .... . 76 7
A ttitudes Are In fluen ced by Changes in Facial E.~press ion,
H ead Movement, and Body Posture . ................ .. .................................... ...... ....... .. .... 768
How Does Deliberate Thinking Shape Attitudes and Behavior? ................ .. ...... .. 1 71
Cognitive Dissonance Theor y Asserts that Rationalization Shapes A ttitudes . .. .. .. ..... .. ...... . 77 7
Cognitive Consistency Is Not a Universal Motive. ...... .... .. .. ........ .. .. .. .... .. .. .. .. .. ........ .......... 778
SelF-Perception Theory Contends that Behavior Causes Attitudes . .. .... ...... ..... .. ......... .... ... 780
The Th eory of Planned Behavior Explains " Th ought-Through " Actions . .. ........ .. ................ 782
The Nature of Persuasion .. ........ .. .. .. ................ .. .. .. ...... .. .... .. ................. .. .. .. .... . 184
Persuasion Can O ccur Through Both Effortful and Effortless Thinking . .. .. .. ................... .. .. 784
Persuader Credibility and Attractiveness Can Affect Persuasion ............ .. .... ....... .. ............. 787
Rapid Speech Encourages Peripheral-Route Persuasion
While Hindering Central-Route Processing............ ........ ..... ............. .. .......... .... .. .. .. ..... 790
Em otions Motivate, Enhance, and Hinder Persuasion . .. ...... .. .... .... ............ .... .... ................ 797
Two -Sided Messages Inoculate Audiences Against Opposing Views . .... .. .............. .. .. ...... .. 793
We Can Develop Attitude Certainty by Actively Trying to Counterargue.......... .. ............... 795
Appl ications .. ... ............... .. .. .... ............... ...... ... .... ..... ....... ..... ..... .. .................. 199
Web Sites ... .. ................... ...... .......... ..... ... ........ ............... .. ..... .. .. .. .... ... ........ .. .202
Chapter 6
Stereotyping, Prejudice, and Discrimination ............... 204
INTRODUGION ........ ............. .. .. ...... ...... .. .. .. .. ... ...... .... .... ... ... . 205
Cognitive, Affective, and
Behaviorial Components of Intergroup Conflict .. .. ........ .. .......... .......... .... ...... ..... 207
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Stereotypes Are Beliefs About Social Croups . ... ... ...... ... .. ...... .... ... .... ..... ...... ... ..... ..... ........ 207
Prejudice Is an Attitude and Discrimination Is an Action . ............... .. ............. ................ ... 277
There Are Three Basic Forms of Prejudice . ......................... '.' .... .......... .... ....... ........ .. ......... 273
Common Targets of Intolerance in Contemporary Society ... : .. ... ... ... ............. .. ... 215
Race-Based Appearance Cues Can Trigger Discrimination . ............................... ..... .......... 277
Modern-Day Racism Is More Ambivalent than Openly Hostile . ............................. .......... 279
Sexism Has Both a Hostile and a Benevolent Comp onent. .... .. ....... .................................. 223
Intolerance Based on Weight andSexual Orientation 15 Often Accepted... .. .. ..... ............... 227
Stigmatized Croups Can Experien ce Stereotype 1:/lreat. .. .. .......... .. ................... .... ..... ....... 230
What Motives and Social Factors Shape Prejudice and Discrimination? ...... ...... .... 234
Ingroup Members Are Favored over Outgroup Members . ............... ... ................ ......... .. ... 234
Intergroup Competition Can Lead to Prejudice ....... .... .. ...... ......... .................................... 236
. Prejudice Can Serve as a justification for Oppression .............................................. .... .. ... 240
Authoritarianism 15 Associated with Hostility Toward Outgroups ............. ........................ .243
Can We Reduce Intergroup 13ias and Intolerance? .. .. .. ............ ............ .............. 246
Prejudice and Discrimination Can Be Reduced by Monitoring Stereotyped Thinking ........ 247
Targets of Prejudice Can Become Positive Social Change Agents . .............. .. .. .. .. .............. . 249
The Contact Hypothesis Identifies Social Conditions That Reduce Intergroup Conflict. .... 250
Applications ........ ..... .... ..... ........ .. .... ... ....... ...... ..... ................................... ...... 253
The 13ig Picture ........... .. ............................ .... .. ...... ................... ......... .......... ... .255
Web Sites ...... ..................... ..... .. ................... ........................... ........... ........... 255
Chapter 7
Social Influence ............ :......................... ...... ............... 258
INTRODUGION ....................... .... .... ..................................... .259
What Is Sociallnfluence? .................... ............ ....... .... .... ........ 261
Conformity, Compliance, and Obedience Are Different Types of Sociallnfluence ............. 261
People with Socia l Power Are More Likely to Initiate Action . ................. ...... ...................... 262
Classic and Contemporary Conformity Research ....... .. .... .... .. ... .......... ............... 263
Sherif Analyzed Conformity to an Ambiguous Reality. .. ......... .... ............. .. .. ...................... 263
SpecifiC Situations Can Automatically Activate Specific Social Norms .................. ............ 266
Asch Analyzed Conformity to a Una nimous Majority. .... ...................... .. ......... ........ ........ .268
Normative and Informational Influence Shape Conformity. .... ..................... .. .............. ..... 270
Schachter In vestigated the Rejection of the Nonconformist. ...... ........ .. ...... .. .... .. .............. .272
What Factors Influence Conformity? .... ..... .............. ...................... .... ................ 275
Situational Factors Impact Conformity. .... .. .... ... .... ... ...... ... ... ... .............. ... ... ... ........ .. ... .. ... 275
Personal Fa ctors Influence Conformity.................................... .. ........ .............. ......... ........ 277
Cultures Differ in Their Conf9rmity Patterns ............ .... ........... ...... .................. ...... .. .. ........ 279
The Minority Can Influence the Majority................... .. ............. .. .................................. .. .. 280
Conformity 15 Sometimes Automatically Activated . .......... .. ................ .... ...... ... ...... ... .... .... 283
Compliance ... ...... ............... .... ... .. .... ... .. .. ... .. ............ ........ .... ..... .. .... .......... .... .284
Manipulating Moods and Invoking Norms Foster Compliance ......................... .. ............ .. 284
Two-Step Strategies Are Effective Compliance Traps . ................... .... ...... ................ ....... .... 286
Obedience ... ....... .... ...................... ..... ................ .. ...... .... .... .... .............. ... ...... 291
Milgram 's Research Suggests tlJat Destructive Obedience 15 Fairly Common .................... 29 1
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Recent Studies Provide Further Insights into Milgram 's Original Findings . .... ,.... ......... ..... .. 294
Observing Others Defy Authority Grea tly Reduces Obedience ......... ..... .... .... ... .. ....... ...... 296
Toword a Unified Understanding of Social Influence .... ......... .. ... ... .. .... ...... .. .. .. ...297
Social Impact Theory Explains Influence Strength . .... .. ........... ... ...... .... ... .. .. ...................... 298
Applications ... ... .... ..... ................. .......... ........... .... .. ....... : ..................... .. ........ 000
The Big Picture ................................................................................ .... .. .. ....... 002
Web Sites ....... .... ... .. .... ...... .................. .. ................ ....... .... ...... .. .. .. ........ .. " ..... 000
Chapter 8
Group Behavior ................... .. ..................................... .306
INTRODUCTION ...................... ......... ..... ... .. ........ ....... .... ......... 007
The Nature of Groups .. .................. ........................... ... .......... 007
Group Success Fosters Social Identification .. ... ..... ... .... ......... ... ........... .. ..... ......... 007
Groups Differ in Th eir Social Cohesiveness . ............... ........... ............................ ............... 308
Groups Accomplish Instrumenta l Tasks and Satisfy Socioemotiona! Needs ... .... ..... ..... .... .. 3 11
Group Structure DevelopsQuickly and Changes Slowly. ...... .... ......... .. ............... ..... .... .... .3 12
There Are Five Phases to Group Membership . .... ..... ......... ... ........ .. ........... .. ... .. ... .... .. ... ... .3 13
Group Influence o n Individual Behavior .... ..... ................................. ... .............. 016
The Presence of Others Can En ergize Us . ... ....... ........ ... ......... .... ..... ... ...... .. .... .... ........... .. .3 16
Th e Presence of Others Can Hide Us . ............... .. ... ........................................ .. ... ..... ...... .318
Being Both Energized and Hidden Can Lower Our Inhibitions . ..... ...... .... ... ... ..... ..... ..... ... .32 1
Decision Making in Groups ........................ .... ........ .. .. .. ............ .... .... .. .. .. ... .. ..... 025
Group D ecision Making Occurs in Stages and Follows Va rious Rules ........ ...... ...... ........ .. .325
Group Discussion Enhances Majority Opinions . ........... ......... ... .. ...................... .... ....... .... 328
Consensus Seeking Overrides Critica l Analys is in Groupthink . .......... .. ........... ................. .330
Leadership ........ ... .. ....... .......... ...... ...... ...... ...... ......... ...................... ...... ......... 000
A Leader Is an In fluen ce Agent. ...... .. ........................................................... .... ......... .. ..... 333
Transformational Leaders Inspire Followers. .......... ... .... .. ....... ...... .. ... ..... ... ... .................... .334
The Contingency Model Is an Interactionist View of Leadership .................. .......... .. ......... 335
Gender and Culture Can Influence Leadership Style. .... ...... .. .. .. .. .......... ... ....... ...... .. .. .. .. .. .33 7
Group Interests Versus Individual Interests .. ...... .. .... .. .. .. ..... ........ ..... ... ....... .... .... 040
Socia l Dilemmas Occur When Short-term and Long-term Interests Conflict. ..................... 340
Cooperation Is Necessary to Resolve Social Dilemmas .... .. .......................... ...... ... .. ...... .... 3 42
Applications ............. ......... .. ... ..... ............. ........... .......................................... 044
The Big Picture ........ .. ..................... ..... ............... ............. ....................... ........ 046
Web Sites ........................ .. ......................................... .. ................ ........ ... ...... 046
Chapter 9
Interpersonal Attraction .. ............................................ 348
INTRODUCTION ............ ..... ......... .... .. ..... ... ......... ... ........ ...... ... 049
Affiliation Needs .............................................. ..................... 050
Two Reasons for Affiliation Are Comparison and Exchange . ............ .......... .. .. .. ................ .350
Our Evolutionary Heritage and Biology Influence Our Affiliation Desires ......... .... ............ 35 1
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Socialization Shapes Our Inborn Affiliation Tendencies ........ .•.......... .. ........... .... ...... .. ...... .352
Characteristics of the Situation and Attraction .... . : .... .. ... ...... ... .. ..... .. ..... .... .... .... ..055
Close Proximity Fosters Liking ... .. .. ............................. ...... .. ........... ........ ............ ............... 355
Our Affiliation Desires Increase with Anxiety.. .... ...... .. ................................................. .... .357
Characteristics of Others and Attraction .. ..... ... ... .. ... ....... ........... ........ .. .. .. .. ........ 062
We Are Drawn Toward the Physically Attractive .............................. ............ ....... ... ......... ..363
There Are Gender·Based Attractiveness Standards ............................ ............... ........... .... .365
Gender· Based Attractiveness Standards Shape Body Esteem ...................................... .... .370
Social Comparison Influences Attractiveness /udf¥rlents ............... .. ................. .............. .. 371
Birds of a Feather Really Do Flock Together. .............. .. .. .. ..... ........... ....... ............ ........ ..... 3 73
We Like Those Who Like Us .. .... .................... .. .................. .. .. ....... ......... .... ... ..... .. ....... ..... .376
When Social Interaction Becomes Problematic. ....... ..... ....... ......... ..... .. ... ......... .. 077
Social Anxiety Can Keep Us Isola ted from Others ........ .. .. ... ............. ... ....... ...... ............... .377
Lonelin ess Is the Consequence of Social Isolation . ..................................... .. .. .. .. ......... .... .379
Applications .. ... ... ..... .. ........ ... .......... .. ............ .. : .. ....... .. .... ..... ....... .. ... ............. 080
The Big Picture ....... ........ .............. ....... ..... .. ....... ............... ....... ......... ... .. ...... ... 086
Web Sites .. .. ... ... .. ..... ....... ..... ... .. ...... .... ................. .... .. .... ... ............... ........ ..... 086
Chapter 10
Intimate Relationships ........ ..................... ......... ...... .. ... 388
INTRODUGION .... ..... .. ........ .. .... ... .. ........ ... .............. ........ ..... .089
What Is Intimacy? ................. ... .. ...... ...... ...... ............... .... ... .. .. 090
Intimacy Involves Including Another in Your Self~ Con cept. ......... ......... .... ......................... 3 90
Parent-Child Attachment.and Later Adult Relationships .. .. ...... .. .. .............. .... ..... 094
Attachment Is an Inborn Adaptive Response .............. .. ...... .. .......... ..... .. .. .. ...... ............ .... .394
Attachment Styles In fluence Romantic Relationships ................................ .. .. ................ .. .395
Friendship .............. ..... ........... ..... ......................... ... .. .. .. .. ....... .. ............. ... .... .. 400
Self· Disclosure Shapes Friendship Development and Maintenance . .. .... .... ................... ... .400
Gender Differences Exist in H eterosexual Friendships . .................. .......... .. ............. .... .... . .403
Cross·Sex H eterosexual FriendshipsGravitate to an " Intimacy Mean ': .... .. .... .... .... ... ...... .. . .406
" Friends-with-Benefits" Relationships Pose Unique Challenges and Dangers ... ...... ......... .. 407
Gender Differences Disappear in Same-Sex Homosexual Friendships .......... .............. .. ..... 408
Important Barriers to Long-Distance Friendships Are Falling ............. .. .................... .... ...... 409
Romantic Relationships .. ... .. ........... ..... ............ ....... ....... .. ....... .............. .... ....... 410
Culture Shapes How We Think About Romantic Love . ........ .. .................. .. ...................... .410
Online Romance and Speed Dating Follow Similar Rules as Face-to-Face Romance . .. .. ... .4 13
Passionate Love Can Be Triggered by Excitation Transfer.... .. .......................... ...... .... ........ .4 14
Companionate Love Is More,Stable and Enduring than Passionate Love ...... .. ............... .. .. .420
Women and Men May Differ in Th eir Experience of Love ..................... .. .... .... .................. 421
Will Love Endure? .. .... .. ...... ..... ... .............. .... ....... ....... .... ... ... ..... .. ........ ........... 424
Social Disapproval of One 's Partner Harms Relationship Stability. .. .. ........ .. .......... ......... ... 424
People Are H appiest with Romantic Equity. ......... .. ..... .......... .... ..... .. ..... ............. ....... ...... .424
Self-Esteem Can Both Facilitate and Undermine Romantic Love ....................................... 425
Romantic H appiness Is Based on Both Positive I/Iusions and Accurate Judgments ........... .426
Social Support Predicts Relatiof1ship Satisfaction . ....... ........ ............................................. 428
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We Are Meaner to Those We Love Than We Are to Strangers..... ..... ......... ..... .... .. ......... ... .. 429
People Use Different Strategies to Cope with a Troubled Relationship . ......... ...... ............. .431
Romantic Breakups Often Cause Emotional Distress . ..... ....... ............ ... ..... .... .................. .432
Applications ...... ... .......... .... ...... .. ... ....... .... ... ........... ...... .. ..... ............ ..... .. ....... 4:::14
The Big Picture .... .... .. ... ........ ..... ... ..... .. .. ...... .... .. ... .. .. ...... :.. ... ..... ... .. ...... .. .. .. .... 4:::17
Web Sites .... .. ............. ...... .............. ... .. ............ .. ... .. ....... .. .. .......... ........ .... .... ..4:::18
Chapter 11
Aggression ................................................................... 440
INTRODUGION .... ...... ....... ... ......... ........... ... ....... ... ...... .... .... .. 441
What Is Aggression? ... .. ........... .. .. ....... .. ......... ... ... ............ .. ... .441
Aggression Is In tentional Harm ... ............... ............... .. .... ... ... ................. ...................... .. .. 441
Instrumental and H ostileAggression Have Different Goa ls....................... .. ....... .............. .443
Gender and Personality Moderate the Expression of Aggression ............... .... .................... 444
Intergroup Aggression Is Often More Extreme than Interpersonall)ggression .................. .447
The Biology of Ag gression ..... .. .... .. ............ .......... ..... ..... .. ....... .. .. ...... .... .. .. .... .. 448
Evolution Shaped O ur Aggressive Behavior Patterns . .. ...... ....... ............... ........ .. ...... ........ .449
Biological Factors Influence Aggressive Behavior... ... ..... .................................. ... ....... ...... . 450
Aggression as a Reaction to Negative Affect ...... .... .. .. ....... .... ................ ........ .. .452
The Frustration -Aggression H ypothesis Asserts that Frustration Triggers Aggression . ......... 452
U npleasant Situations Can Activate Aggressive !houghts and Associations . ........... .. ....... .453
Alcohol Consumption Increases the Likelih ood of Aggression . ...... .... .... .... .. .. .... .. ...... .. .... .458
Excitation Transfer Can Intensify H ostility-based Aggression ..... .................... .................... 460
Learning Aggressive Behavior ..... ..... .. .... .. .... ..... .. .... ... .. .. .. .. ............ .. .. ... .. .. .... .. 461
Social Learning Th eory Emphasizesthe Shaping of Aggressive Behavior. ........ .... ........... .... 461
Media and Video Vio lence Fosters Aggressive Behavior. ................ .... ........... ...... ...... .. .. .... 464
The " Culture of Honor " Encourages Male Violence. .... .... ....... .. .................... ................... 467
Sexual Aggression ........ ........ .. ...... ........... ......... ... .. .... .... .. ...... .. ... ...... .......... .. .. 469
Pornography Promo tes the "Rape Myth " and May Increase Violence Against Women . ..... 469
Culture· Based Sexual Scripts Make Acquaintance Rape More Likely.......... .... ..... ...... ....... .474
Reducing Aggression .... ........... .. ... ... .... .......... .. .... .... ....................... .. .. .. ....... .. .4 76
Punishment Can Both Decrease and Increase Aggression . ... , ............ .. .......... ........... ........ 476
Inducing Incompatible Responses Can Inhibit Aggression ................... .. ............ .... ........ ... 476
Teaching Nonaggressive Responses to Provocation Can Control Aggression ................. .... 477
Applications .. .. .. ... .. .. ...... ........ .... .... .................. .... .. .... .... .. ... .. .. .. ...... ...... .. ... ... 479
The Big Picture ................ .. .... ..... ....... .. .. .. ........... .. .. .......... .... ... .... .......... .. ....... 480
Web Sites .. .. .. ... .. .. ..... ..... .......... .... .. .. .............. .. .... ........... ........ ..... .... .. ... ........ 481
Chapter 12
Prosocial Behavior: Helping Others ........................... .484
INTRODUGION ... ....... .. .................... .... .. .. .. .... ...... ..... .. ...... ... .485
Why Do We Help? .. .... .. .......... .... .. ........ ..... ... .. ............. .... .. .... 486
Th ere are Two Basic Forms of H elping .............. ....... ..... ....... ................. .... .................... ... 486
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Helping Is Consistent with Evolutionary Theor y. ........ ... ..... ............ ..... ................... .. ....... .488
Social Norms Define the Rules of Helping Others ............................................................ 490
Politica l and Social Class Differences Shape Willingness to Help ..................................... .490
Individualists and Collectivists Differ in Their H elping TendencieS ................... ................ .492
Gender and Personality Influence Helping Responses ........ .. .............. .......... .................... 493
Learning to Be a Helper Invo lves Both Observation and Direct Reinforcement................. 496
_When Do We Help? ................. .. ........... .......... ... .... .. .. ............. ......... ... .... ........ 500
Bystander Intervention In volves a Series of Decisions . ..................... .............. .................. 500
Outcome and Information Dependence Producr<. th e Audience Inhibition Effect. .... .. ....... 503
Diffusion of Responsibility (ncreases with the Number of Bystanders . ...... ........ .. ............ .. 505
Bystander Intervention Is Also Shaped by Emo tional
Arousal and Cost-Reward Assessments ... ... ........................................... ........ ............ .508
Positive and Negative Moods Can Either Increase or Decrease Helping ....... ............... ..... 510
The Empathy-Altruism HypotheSiS Contends
that Empathy Produces Altruistic Motivation ................................... ... ............... ......... 512
Whom Do We Help? ....................... ......... ...... ........................... ..... ........... ...... 516
We Tend to H elp Similar Others ......................... ...... .......... .. ................. ..... ................... :.516
We Help Deserving Others, but We Also Blame Victims ...... ...... .................. ... .. ................ 518
Are There Hidden Costs For Help Recipients? ............ .... .. ....... .................. ...... ... 520
Being Unable to Reciprocate Help Can Create Stress ........... .. .... ...... ...... ...... .................... 520
Receiving Help Can Threaten Self-Esteem ........ .............. ...... .. ............ ..... ......................... 521
Applications ...... ......... ..................................................... ..... .................. ..... ..523
The Dig Picture ............................ .... ......................... ... .... ............ .. ........ .. ....... 524
Web Sites ............................. .. .. ........................ ............ .. .. ............... ..... .. ... .... 524
Appendix ...................................................................................................................526
Glossary ............................................................................................. ....................... 540
References ................................................................................................................. 548
Text and Line An Credits .......................................................................................... 606
Photo Credits ............................................................................................................ 608
Name Index ............................................................................................................... 610
Subject Index ............................................................................................................ 626