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European Journal of Clinical Nutrition (2000) 54, 665±670 ß 2000 Macmillan Publishers Ltd All rights reserved 0954±3007/00 $15.00 www.nature.com/ejcn Evolution of meal patterns and food choices of JapaneseAmerican females born in the United States Y Kudo1, GA Falciglia1* and SC Couch1 1 Department of Health Sciences, Program in Dietetics and Nutrition Education, University of Cincinnati Medical Center, Cincinnati, OH, 04267-0394, USA Objectives: To examine trends in meal patterns and food choices across two generations of Japanese-American females born in the USA. Design: Cross-sectional cohort study. Setting: Gardena, a suburb of Los Angeles, California. Subjects: One-hundred and seventy-six Japanese-American females, participating in a morning exercise class from December 1998 to January 1999. Intervention: Eighty-eight Nisei (second generation) mothers and their Sansei (third generation) daughters completed a food frequency questionnaire, answering questions regarding meal patterns and consumption frequency of 51 food items. Results: The Sansei ate fewer meals per day compared with the Nisei. Mean frequencies of takeout foods and eating out were higher in the Sansei vs the Nisei. Mean intake of meats and eggs were similar between the two groups. However, mean consumption of traditional Japanese complement foods including ®sh, vegetables and legumes was lower in the Sansei vs the Nisei. Intake of more `Westernized' accessory foods, including salty snacks, regular soft drinks and alcoholic beverages, was higher in the Sansei vs the Nisei. Conclusion: Findings from this study indicate that meal patterns and food choices have changed in succeeding generations of Japanese-American females from traditional fare to a diet containing many complement and accessory foods that are higher in fat, sugar, sodium and calories. Health professionals should be advised to consider the whole diet in making nutrition recommendations to this population as well as providing information to this group on the nutritional bene®ts of many traditional foods. Descriptors: acculturation; ethnic; migrant; Japanese-American; diet; food habits European Journal of Clinical Nutrition (2000) 54, 665±670 Introduction Studies on eating patterns among the Japanese immigrants to the USA have previously shown that Japanese-Americans consumed a diet higher in animal fats and simple carbohydrates, and lower in complex carbohydrates than Japanese individuals consuming a traditional diet (Wenkam and Wolff, 1970; Marmot and Syme, 1976; McGee et al, 1984; Tsunehara et al, 1990; Egusa et al, 1993; Fujimoto et al, 1994). Further, a consistent relationship has been demonstrated between the acculturated diet of JapaneseAmericans and the prevalence of diet-related chronic diseases among this population. The mortality rate of coronary heart disease experienced by Japanese-Americans during the 1960s, for instance, was lower than the mortality rate of the USA, but higher than that of Japan (Marmot and Syme, 1976). These ®ndings suggest that changes in lifestyle with acculturation or urbanization over time may have signi®cant effects on diet, nutrition and health. The acculturation experience of Japanese immigrants and their descendants in the USA is historically and *Correspondence: GA Falciglia, Program in Dietetics and Nutrition Education, College of Allied Health Science, University of Cincinnati Medical Center, 355 French Building East, PO Box 670394, Cincinnati, OH 45267-0394, USA. Guarantor: GA Falciglia. Received 10 January 2000; revised 10 April 2000; accepted 20 April 2000 culturally unique. The traditional diet of the Japanese was ®sh- and vegetable-based until the end of the nineteenth century (Yanagihara, 1977). Due to the doctrine of Buddhism introduced from China in the sixth century, Japanese people had been legally prohibited from consuming animal products with the exception of ®sh. Consequently, the traditional Japanese diet was extremely low in fat and cholesterol, high in carbohydrates (mainly from rice), vegetables, ®sh and salt (Tanaka et al, 1992). The prohibition of animal products exclusive of ®sh continued until the 1850s when Japan once again allowed migration from its borders after two centuries of self-imposed isolation (Yanagihara, 1977; Ohnuki-Tierney, 1993). Around 1880, shortly after the isolation ended, Japanese people began to emigrate to Hawaii and the West Coast of the USA (OhnukiTierney, 1993; Takahashi, 1997). The ®rst immigrants (Issei) were young adults aged from approximately 20 to 30 y at their arrival. Further emigration from Japan was then prohibited by the Immigration Act of 1924. Since the age distribution of the Issei was closely clustered, their children (Nisei) and grandchildren (Sansei) constituted two fairly discrete succeeding generations of Japanese-Americans (Fujimoto et al, 1994). In addition, the Japanese-American population has maintained much homogeneity in terms of ethnicity. Fujimoto et al (1994) reported that intra-marriage was common at least through the third generation (Sansei), and inter-marriage rates were Evolution of meal pattern and food choices Y Kudo et al 666 infrequent. Currently, there are few surviving Isseis, and Niseis and Sanseis account for the majority of the Japanese population in the USA. The diet of Japanese-Americans was generally considered to re¯ect the historical and cultural background discussed above, suggesting that their nutritional problems may be unique to changes in food patterns re¯ecting acculturation. However, while the majority of previous studies focused on nutrient intake in relationship to dietrelated chronic disease, generation- and gender-speci®c eating habits and food patterns associated with ethnic identity during the acculturation process within JapaneseAmericans are understudied. Investigation of food patterns may elucidate dietary sources of nutrients and may aid in identifying problematic eating behaviors (ie those that may contribute to chronic disease). This information could subsequently be used to design effective dietary intervention strategies to facilitate the adoption of eating behaviors conducive to achieving optimal nutrition status and health for the Japanese-American population. Toward this purpose, this cross-sectional cohort study was designed to examine trends in meal patterns and food choices across two succeeding generations of Japanese-American females born in the USA. Methods Sample population Subjects for this cross-sectional study were second generation (Nisei) and third generation (Sansei) Japanese-American females (daughters and grand-daughters, respectively of immigrants from Japan) raised and educated in the United States, and currently residing in Los Angeles, California. Nisei were recruited through announcements made at a daily morning exercise class for senior citizens during December 1998 through January 1999 at a community gymnasium in Gardena City, a suburb of Los Angeles, California. According to the 1990 US Census (Bureau of the US Census in Gardena, Los Angeles, 1990), the ethnicity of the suburb is predominately Asian (31.9%), of which Japanese-Americans comprise 18% of the suburb population of 53,848. Rosters and background information on Japanese-American females registered in the exercise classes were available through the leader of the senior citizen organization. Some 80 ± 85% of approximately 400 regular senior participants aged over 60 y were Japanese-Americans, of whom 65% were Nisei females. Once recruited, the Nisei were asked to provide promotional information about the study to their daughters. Sansei interested in participating in the study contacted the researchers and were recruited by telephone. Inclusion and exclusion criteria were as follows. The Nisei mothers had to (1) be of pure Japanese descendants born in the US (eg both parents migrated from Japan to the US); (2) have married a Japanese-American male whose ancestors had also migrated from Japan to the US, and (3) have at least one daughter. The Sansei daughter group included: (1) those whose parents and both sets of grandparents were of Japanese descent; and (2) those living separately from their Nisei mothers. The Nisei mothers or the Sansei daughters who were born in the USA but spent their childhood in Japan for education were excluded. The sample pool for this study was 220 Nisei females. Onehundred and seventy-nine Nisei had Sansei daughters who European Journal of Clinical Nutrition agreed to participate in this study. Eighty-eight Nisei and Sansei pairs met the inclusion criteria as stated above. All subjects signed informed consent to participate in this study. Materials and methods A questionnaire using a multiple-choice format, available in both English and Japanese, was developed to obtain demographic characteristics and dietary intake information regarding meal patterns and food choices. Demographic variables collected included age, education, employment, immigration year of ancestors, and residence status. Since the purpose of this study was to determine usual meal patterns and food choices instead of nutrient intake, dietary intake information was obtained using a self-administered food frequency questionnaire (FFQ). The FFQ list developed for this study consisted of 51 food items including popular American and Japanese foods. Approximately half of the items were adapted from Hankin's questionnaire (Hankin et al, 1991). The other items, particularly Japanese-culture speci®c foods, were added from the list of the 1996 National Nutritional Survey conducted in Japan (Ministry of Health and Welfare of Japan, 1998). Each subject was asked to rate her usual weekly frequency of consumption of the listed foods as well as meals, snacks and eating out. The reliability of the FFQ questionnaire was tested by running Chronbach's a using SPSS statistic software. The range of Chronbach's a was 0.62 to 1.00. Instructions were provided on all forms and questionnaires in English and Japanese. Nisei mothers were given two sets of questionnaires at exercise classes, one set to complete by themselves and one set to give to their daughters. Completed questionnaires were returned to the researchers by mail. Data analyses Mean frequency scores for meals, snacks, eating out and individual food items were used to describe dietary patterns and food choices for two generations of Japanese-American females. Signi®cant differences in food consumption and meal patterns between the two generations were determined by Student's t-test (STATA statistical software, 1999). A signi®cance criterion of P < 0.05 was used for all analyses. The model proposed by Kocturk-Runefors (1991) was used to further elucidate the nature of the dietary changes that had occurred after migration among the JapaneseAmerican study participants. According to this model, dietary habit changes are suggested to proceed in a continuum, where `identity' and `taste' form the opposing poles. Further, the model purports that, when designing a menu, an immigrant asserts his=her cultural identity by selecting foods from the `identity' pole of the continuum. These foods include staple foods, which are usually carbohydrate-rich with a neutral taste. When new foods are incorporated into the diet, however, food selection proceeds from the `taste' pole of the continuum, which consists primarily of accessory foods including fats, herbs and spices, sweets and snacks. In between the staple and accessory foods lie the complement foods which the model suggests change more gradually with acculturation than accessory foods but more quickly than staple foods. To assess whether this model held true in the present study, food items on the FFQ were grouped into staple, complement and accessory foods and were arranged into hierarchical order within each group based on mean frequency of consumption. Food schemes were then compared Evolution of meal pattern and food choices Y Kudo et al against each other and against similarly arranged Japanese dietary data collected from historical documents at the turn of the century (Tanaka et al, 1992, Wenkam and Wolff, 1970; Yanagihara, 1977) to assess generational changes in food selection patterns. This latter dietary data was chosen to re¯ect the period when ®rst-generation Japanese immigrants migrated from Japan to the USA. Results Sample population characteristics Table 1 summarizes demographic characteristics of the 88 Japanese-American females who participated in this study. The majority of subjects were descendants of Japanese immigrants who came from Japan to the USA between the 1880s and the 1920s. The mean age ( + standard deviation) of the Nisei mothers was 72.3 ( + 5.6) y, while that of the Sansei daughters was 43.2 ( + 6.3) y. Both groups had a minimum of a high school education. Ninety-three percent of the Sansei completed more than 2 y of college, while only 32% of the Nisei received more than a college education. More than half of the Nisei mothers lived in an Asian neighborhood (68%), and 30% lived alone. No Nisei mothers were working, and the median range of annual income was $30,000 ± 39,999. In contrast, the Sansei daughters predominantly lived outside of an Asian community (61%), and only 7% lived alone. Almost all of the Sansei daughters (93%) had either fulltime (70%) or part-time jobs (23%), and they mostly earned more than $50,000 in income per year (77%). Meal patterns Table 2 demonstrates signi®cant generational differences in meal and eating patterns between the Nisei mothers and the Table 1 Demographic characteristics of the Japanese-American Nisei mothers and Sansei daughters Nisei mothers Sansei daughters Second generation Third generation a (n 44) (% (n)) (n 44) (% (n))a Age 30 ± 39 40 ± 49 50 ± 59 60 ± 69 70 ± 79 80 ± 89 Education High school Vocational school College University Graduate school Living in an Asian neighborhood Living arrangements Alone With husband With relatives=others Employment Full time Part time Not working Annual income (US$) Less than 20,000 20,000 ± 29,999 30,000 ± 39,999 40,000 ± 49,999 50,000 or more a 30 (13) 57 (25) 14 (6) 59 9 18 9 5 68 (26) (4) (8) (4) (2) (30) 32 (14) 50 (22) 18 (8) 5 2 39 45 9 39 (2) (1) (17) (20) (4) (17) 30 (13) 61 (27) 9 (4) 7 (3) 70 (31) 23 (10) 100 (44) 70 (31) 23 (10) 7 (3) 20 23 18 7 32 (9) (10) (8) (3) (14) 7 2 14 77 (3) (1) (6) (34) Percentages may not add to a total of 100 because of rounding. Sansei daughters. Compared with the Nisei mothers who usually ate three meals per day, the Sansei daughters ate signi®cantly fewer meals, of which breakfast was the most frequently skipped. The mean weekly frequencies of takeout foods and eating out, in contrast, were signi®cantly higher in the Sansei daughters, compared with the Nisei mothers. 667 Food choices Tables 3 ± 5 present mean weekly frequency of intake of selected food items (as speci®ed on the FFQ) for the Nisei mothers and the Sansei daughters. The 51 food items on the FFQ were classi®ed into three food categories: animal origin foods and fats (Table 3); plant origin foods (Table 4); and sweets, snacks, beverages and seasonings (Table 5). In the animal origin food group, neither the consumption of meats nor that of eggs was signi®cantly different between the Nisei mothers and the Sansei daughters (Table 3). Among the seafood group, fresh and dried ®sh consumption was lower in the Sansei vs the Nisei. Among the dairy foods, the Sansei consumed cheese more often than the Nisei. Within the fat group, the Sansei consumed butter and margarine signi®cantly less often than the Nisei. In the plant origin food group, the consumption of legumes was lower in the Sansei daughters compared to their Nisei mothers (Table 4). This difference between Table 2 Mean ( + standard deviation) weekly frequencies of meals, take-out foods and eating out in diets of Nisei mothers and Sansei daughters Breakfast Lunch Dinner Take-out foods Eating out Nisei Sansei P-value 6.9 + 0.5 6.8 + 0.7 7.0 + 0.0 1.3 + 1.1 2.0 + 1.3 5.0+ 2.4 6.4+ 1.0 6.7+ 1.1 2.9+ 1.7 4.6+ 2.6 0.00 0.01 0.03 0.00 0.01 Table 3 Differences in intake of animal origin foods and fats between the Nisei and the Sansei Mean frequencies= week + s.d. Food items Meats Beef=ground beef Hamburger Pork Ham=luncheon meats Sausage=hot dog Chicken Eggs Seafood Fish=dried ®sh Shell®sh Canned ®sh Dairy foods Milk Yogurt Cheese Fats Butter=margarine Bacon Salad dressing=mayonnaise Vegetable oils Difference (%)a P-value Nisei Sansei 2.2 + 1.5 0.9 + 0.9 1.0 + 0.9 1.1 + 1.0 0.6 + 0.7 3.1 + 1.4 1.9 + 1.5 2.4+ 1.6 1.1+ 1.2 0.8+ 0.7 1.1+ 1.2 0.4+ 0.6 3.4+ 1.5 1.4+ 1.5 9 22 20 0 33 10 26 NS NS NS NS NS NS NS 1.7 + 1.2 0.9+ 1.3 0.6 + 0.8 0.5+ 0.9 1.1 + 0.8 0.9+ 0.9 47 17 18 0.00 NS NS 3.8 + 2.9 3.1+ 2.9 1.0 + 1.6 0.9+ 1.2 1.0 + 1.0 1.7+ 1.7 18 10 70 NS NS 0.01 3.8 + 2.5 0.5 + 1.0 3.3 + 2.0 2.8 + 1.7 24 20 6 4 0.03 NS NS NS 2.9+ 1.9 0.4+ 0.6 3.5+ 2.0 2.7+ 2.2 NS not signi®cant. % Difference total frequencies of (Sansei 7 Nisei=Nisei)6100. a European Journal of Clinical Nutrition Evolution of meal pattern and food choices Y Kudo et al 668 Table 4 Differences in intake of plant origin foods between the Nisei and the Sansei Mean frequencies= week + s.d. Food items Plant origin foods Legumes: Dry beans=peas Tofu Vegetables Fresh vegetables Frozen vegetables Canned vegetables Potatoes=fried potatoes Japanese dried vegetables Japanese pickled vegetables Mushroom Seaweed Fruits Fresh fruits Canned fruits Fruit juice Staple foods Rice Bread=rolls Ready-to-eat-cereals Oriental noodles Pasta Pancakes Nisei Sansei Difference (%)a P-value 1.0+ 1.2 0.3 + 1.0 3.0+ 1.8 1.6 + 1.6 70 47 0.00 0.00 6.0+ 1.8 1.3+ 1.3 1.2+ 1.2 1.2+ 0.8 1.5+ 1.4 3.3+ 2.3 0.8+ 1.1 1.7+ 1.3 5.1 + 2.3 1.3 + 1.4 1.3 + 1.3 1.8 + 1.4 0.7 + 1.3 1.3 + 1.5 0.8 + 1.2 1.3 + 1.6 15 0 8 50 53 61 0 24 0.02 NS NS 0.01 0.00 0.00 NS NS 6.2+ 1.9 4.7 + 2.2 1.4+ 1.3 0.7 + 1.0 4.4+ 2.5 4.7 + 2.9 24 70 7 0.00 0.00 NS 6.5+ 1.2 5.3+ 1.9 2.9+ 2.6 1.9+ 1.3 1.2+ 1.1 0.5+ 0.6 22 9 14 16 50 20 0.00 NS NS NS 0.01 NS 5.1 + 2.2 4.8 + 2.2 2.5 + 2.3 1.6 + 1.5 1.8 + 1.3 0.6 + 1.1 NS not signi®cant a % Difference total frequencies of (Sansei 7 Nisei=Nisei)6100. generations could be attributed to the lower consumption of beans, peas and tofu (soybean curd) in the Sansei vs the Nisei. Among the vegetables, the consumption of fresh vegetables was lower in the Sansei compared to the Nisei, as was intake of Japanese-style dried and pickled vegetables. The consumption of potatoes (including fried potatoes), in contrast, was higher for the Sansei vs the Nisei. With respect to fruit consumption, fresh fruits were consumed more often and canned fruits were consumed less often in the Sansei vs the Nisei. For staple foods, rice and pasta appeared to change places in dietary priority in succeeding generations. The Sansei consumed rice signi®cantly less often than the Nisei. For `accessory' type foods, such as sweets, snacks and beverages, Sansei daughters consumed more of the `Westernized' versions of these food items than their Nisei mothers (Table 5). Speci®cally, the Sansei had higher intakes of salty snacks, regular soft drinks and alcoholic beverages than the Nisei. In contrast, Nisei mothers consumed more of the traditional Japanese snacks and beverages, such as Japanese sweets (cooked sweet beans, manjyu and yokan) and green tea. Also, the Nisei's use of traditional Japanese spices, such as soy sauce and miso, was greater as compared to their Sansei daughters. Table 5 Differences in intake of sweets, snack, beverages and seasoning between the Nisei mothers and the Sansei daughters Mean frequencies= week + s.d. Food items Sweets and snacks Pie=cake Chocolate=candy Ice cream Japanese sweets Salty snacks Beverages Coffee Green tea Soft drinks (regular) Alcoholic beverage Seasoning Soy sauce Miso=miso soup Teriyaki sauce Catsup Sauce mix=BBQ sauce Nisei Sansei Difference (%)a P-value 1.3 + 1.2 2.3 + 2.1 1.3 + 1.6 1.2 + 1.5 2.0 + 1.8 1.1 + 1.5 2.6 + 2.2 1.1 + 1.3 0.5 + 0.8 2.8 + 2.1 15 13 15 58 40 NS NS NS 0.00 0.03 4.7 + 3.0 5.1 + 2.5 1.6 + 1.9 0.1 + 0.3 4.7 + 3.1 2.3 + 2.2 3.2 + 3.0 0.5 + 1.1 0 55 100 400 NS 0.00 0.00 0.00 4.5 + 1.8 2.1 + 1.4 1.3 + 1.3 1.4 + 1.1 0.7 + 0.8 3.0 + 1.9 1.0 + 1.5 1.4 + 1.4 1.3 + 1.5 0.7 + 1.1 33 52 8 7 0 0.00 0.00 NS NS NS NS not signi®cant a % Difference total frequencies of (Sansei 7 Nisei=Nisei)6100. Japan, rice as a staple food was generally consumed three times a day. In the complement group, the most frequently eaten were vegetables, namely mushrooms and seaweed, while the least frequently consumed were dairy foods. For the accessory foods, soy sauce and miso were eaten at every meal, and fats formed a minor part of the diet. In comparison with the Japanese diet before migration, rice remained a staple food in the Nisei diet, while breads and cereals were newly incorporated into this group. Within the complement food category, the vegetables= mushrooms=seaweed group, which was eaten the most frequently before migration, maintained the same ranking in the Nisei diet. However, the legumes=beans=tofu group, seafood and eggs were replaced in the hierarchy of the food selection scheme by meats and dairy foods. Within the accessory food category, soy sauce and miso, which previously were top ranking condiments in the traditional Japanese diet, were displaced by fats in the Nisei diet. For the Sansei daughters as compared to their Nisei mothers, the order of rice remained unchanged among the staple food category. Within the complement food category, only one food shift occurred. The legumes= beans=tofu group was replaced in the hierarchy by seafood. With respect to accessory foods, fat maintained a top position in the ranking scheme. Conversely, sweets rose to a higher rank, replacing fresh fruits. Snacks and soft drinks rose one position in the hierarchy while soy sauce, miso and green tea fell three. Discussion Food selection patterns Table 6 compares food selection schemes across three generations of Japanese-American females. Schemes were designed according to the model by Kocturk-Runefors (1991). The scheme depicting the Japanese diet before migration represents the typical Japanese diet during the period of migration from the late nineteenth to the early twentieth centuries of Japan, and served as an ancestral scheme for comparative purposes. During this period in European Journal of Clinical Nutrition Several important generational differences in meal patterns and food choices were found between the Sansei and the Nisei in this study. The changes in meal patterns observed indicate that, as the custom of three meals a day has faded across generations, their appears to be a concurrent increase in the use of take-out foods and frequency of dining out. The changing dining habits of the Sansei may be partly attributable to a changing demographic pro®le among Japanese-American females. A greater proportion of Evolution of meal pattern and food choices Y Kudo et al Table 6 Food selection schemes for succeeding generations of Japanese-American females. The hierarchy of food selection within each group is compared to the food selection continuum (far left column) proposed by Koctuck-Runefors (1991). Foods at the Identity pole of the continuum in each group of subjects represent foods that are attached to cultural identity. Foods at the Taste pole of the continuum in each group are foods that enhance the taste of basic foods. Numbers in parentheses denote mean frequencies of intake per week Food selection continuum ! ! Identity Taste Japanese diet before migration Staple foods Rice Complement foods Vegetables=mushrooms=seaweed Legumes=beans=tofu Seafood Eggs Meats Dairy foods Accessory foods Soy sauce=miso Nisei mothers Sansei daughters Staple foods Rice (6.5) Bread (5.3) Cereals (2.9) Complement foods Vegetables=mushrooms=seaweed (17.0) Meats (8.9) Dairy foods (5.8) Legumes=beans=tofu (4.0) Seafood (3.4) Eggs (1.9) Accessory foods Fats (10.4) Soy sauce=miso (6.6) Fresh fruits (6.2) Sweets (6.1) Green tea (5.1) Coffee (4.7) Snacks (3.4) Soft drinks (1.6) Staple foods Rice (5.1) Bread (4.8) Cereals (2.5) Complement foods Vegetables=mushrooms=seaweed (13.6) Meats (9.2) Dairy foods (5.7) Seafood (2.3) Legumes=beans=tofu (1.9) Eggs (1.4) Accessory foods Fats (9.5) Sweets (5.3) Fresh fruits (4.7) Coffee (4.7) Soy sauce=miso (4.0) Snacks (3.8) Soft drinks (3.2) Green tea (2.3) Sansei were employed, had a higher income level and thus could afford the luxury of eating or obtaining meals outside the home. This growing trend among younger Japanese Americans to `eat out' may contribute to a reduction in intake of foods attached to Japanese cultural identity, as was observed in this study. These foods included ®sh, legumes such as tofu, vegetables, green tea, and Japanese ¯avorings. Most of these foods appear to be dif®cult to obtain outside the home. Nestle (1994) reported that Asian cuisine is typically altered in restaurants to contain more animal products and less traditionally Japanese ingredients. For similar reasons, traditional Japanese accessory foods may be replaced by more `Westernized' additives, potentially contributing to higher intakes of fat, salt and sugar. One of the favorable ®ndings in food selection across generations of Japanese-American females was that the consumption of meats and eggs, generally considered predominant sources of saturated fat and cholesterol in the American diet, did not increase from the Nisei to the Sansei. Further, intake of obvious fat, such as butter and margarine, declined in the diet of the Sansei compared to the Nisei. These ®ndings support recent data from Tsunehara et al (1990) demonstrating that dietary fat intake has declined over the last few decades among Japanese Americans. Our ®nding, in combination with those from Tsunehara, is noteworthy given that total fat intake was reported to be on the increase among Japanese-Americans from the turn of the century to the pre-World War II years (Wenkam and Wolff, 1970). The scheme of food selection patterns described in this study indicated that, among all food items examined, rice and vegetables ranked among the most frequently consumed foods in the diet across three generations of Japanese-American females. These ®ndings follow the model of Kocturk-Runefors, which suggests that succeeding generations of immigrants will maintain intake of foods attached to cultural identity longer than foods that enhance the taste and palatability of basic foods. Additional support for this model comes from Ohnuki-Tierney (1993), who, in describing the Japanese food culture, reports that the 669 Japanese describe rice as `self ', and that the term for cooked rice in the Japanese culture means `meal'. Vegetables in the Japanese diet are also referred to as `nature' in the seasonal essays of Yanagihara and Yanagihara (1992), a master of the cuisine for the ceremony of tea. Since rice and vegetables have layers of meaning in everyday Japanese life, occupy a prominent place in the Japanese-American food selection scheme, and are healthful food choices, maintaining interest in these foods may play a key role in promoting overall nutritional status and health among Japanese-Americans. Our ®ndings with respect to accessory foods also follow the model proposed by Kocturk-Runefors. This researcher suggested that, when new foods are incorporated into the diet of immigrants, they frequently are foods comprising the accessory food group, including sweets, snacks and soft drinks. We observed that salty snacks, soft-drinks, and alcoholic beverages were consumed at a higher frequency in succeeding generations, while the intake of more traditional Japanese accessory foods, for example cooked sweet beans and spices, decreased. Increasing consumption of snacks, soft drinks, and alcoholic beverages in the Sansei diets compared to the Nisei may re¯ect Kocturk-Runefors' (1991) views that accessory foods are not culturally recognized as `real foods'. As such, these researchers suggest that the consumption of these foods is likely to be ignored by individuals, resulting in over-indulgence. Excess intake of accessory foods can potentially contribute to increased intakes of fat, sodium, sugar and calories, all undesirable dietary changes from the health point of view. JapaneseAmerican females should be alerted that some food tradeoffs may have negative health consequences. In conclusion, ®ndings from this study support the notion that dietary changes have occurred among succeeding generations of Japanese-American females. Transition from the traditional Japanese diet to a more `Westernized' diet is observed mainly in the accessory food category, with increased use of salty snacks, soft drinks and alcoholic beverages. Further studies are needed to determine the reasons for the observed dietary changes and whether dietary alterations in accessory foods may contribute to European Journal of Clinical Nutrition Evolution of meal pattern and food choices Y Kudo et al 670 an overall increase in dietary fat, sugar, salt and alcohol, and potentially contribute to greater health risk. Findings from this study also suggest that acculturation of JapaneseAmericans may have contributed to lower intakes of foods common in the traditional Japanese diet, such as ®sh, legumes, beans and fruits. Given that these foods are highly regarded as health promoting foods, it would be advisable to inform Japanese immigrants about the nutritional bene®ts of these traditional foods. References Bureau of the US Census in Gardena, Los Angeles (1990): Gardena City Hall. 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