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European Journal of Clinical Nutrition (2000) 54, 665±670
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Evolution of meal patterns and food choices of JapaneseAmerican females born in the United States
Y Kudo1, GA Falciglia1* and SC Couch1
1
Department of Health Sciences, Program in Dietetics and Nutrition Education, University of Cincinnati Medical Center, Cincinnati, OH,
04267-0394, USA
Objectives: To examine trends in meal patterns and food choices across two generations of Japanese-American
females born in the USA.
Design: Cross-sectional cohort study.
Setting: Gardena, a suburb of Los Angeles, California.
Subjects: One-hundred and seventy-six Japanese-American females, participating in a morning exercise class
from December 1998 to January 1999.
Intervention: Eighty-eight Nisei (second generation) mothers and their Sansei (third generation) daughters
completed a food frequency questionnaire, answering questions regarding meal patterns and consumption
frequency of 51 food items.
Results: The Sansei ate fewer meals per day compared with the Nisei. Mean frequencies of takeout foods and
eating out were higher in the Sansei vs the Nisei. Mean intake of meats and eggs were similar between the two
groups. However, mean consumption of traditional Japanese complement foods including ®sh, vegetables and
legumes was lower in the Sansei vs the Nisei. Intake of more `Westernized' accessory foods, including salty
snacks, regular soft drinks and alcoholic beverages, was higher in the Sansei vs the Nisei.
Conclusion: Findings from this study indicate that meal patterns and food choices have changed in succeeding
generations of Japanese-American females from traditional fare to a diet containing many complement and
accessory foods that are higher in fat, sugar, sodium and calories. Health professionals should be advised to
consider the whole diet in making nutrition recommendations to this population as well as providing information
to this group on the nutritional bene®ts of many traditional foods.
Descriptors: acculturation; ethnic; migrant; Japanese-American; diet; food habits
European Journal of Clinical Nutrition (2000) 54, 665±670
Introduction
Studies on eating patterns among the Japanese immigrants
to the USA have previously shown that Japanese-Americans consumed a diet higher in animal fats and simple
carbohydrates, and lower in complex carbohydrates than
Japanese individuals consuming a traditional diet (Wenkam
and Wolff, 1970; Marmot and Syme, 1976; McGee et al,
1984; Tsunehara et al, 1990; Egusa et al, 1993; Fujimoto
et al, 1994). Further, a consistent relationship has been
demonstrated between the acculturated diet of JapaneseAmericans and the prevalence of diet-related chronic diseases among this population. The mortality rate of coronary
heart disease experienced by Japanese-Americans during
the 1960s, for instance, was lower than the mortality rate of
the USA, but higher than that of Japan (Marmot and Syme,
1976). These ®ndings suggest that changes in lifestyle with
acculturation or urbanization over time may have signi®cant effects on diet, nutrition and health.
The acculturation experience of Japanese immigrants
and their descendants in the USA is historically and
*Correspondence: GA Falciglia, Program in Dietetics and Nutrition
Education, College of Allied Health Science, University of Cincinnati
Medical Center, 355 French Building East, PO Box 670394, Cincinnati,
OH 45267-0394, USA.
Guarantor: GA Falciglia.
Received 10 January 2000; revised 10 April 2000; accepted 20 April 2000
culturally unique. The traditional diet of the Japanese was
®sh- and vegetable-based until the end of the nineteenth
century (Yanagihara, 1977). Due to the doctrine of Buddhism introduced from China in the sixth century, Japanese
people had been legally prohibited from consuming animal
products with the exception of ®sh. Consequently, the
traditional Japanese diet was extremely low in fat and
cholesterol, high in carbohydrates (mainly from rice),
vegetables, ®sh and salt (Tanaka et al, 1992). The prohibition of animal products exclusive of ®sh continued until the
1850s when Japan once again allowed migration from its
borders after two centuries of self-imposed isolation (Yanagihara, 1977; Ohnuki-Tierney, 1993). Around 1880, shortly
after the isolation ended, Japanese people began to emigrate to Hawaii and the West Coast of the USA (OhnukiTierney, 1993; Takahashi, 1997).
The ®rst immigrants (Issei) were young adults aged from
approximately 20 to 30 y at their arrival. Further emigration
from Japan was then prohibited by the Immigration Act of
1924. Since the age distribution of the Issei was closely
clustered, their children (Nisei) and grandchildren (Sansei)
constituted two fairly discrete succeeding generations of
Japanese-Americans (Fujimoto et al, 1994). In addition, the
Japanese-American population has maintained much
homogeneity in terms of ethnicity. Fujimoto et al (1994)
reported that intra-marriage was common at least through
the third generation (Sansei), and inter-marriage rates were
Evolution of meal pattern and food choices
Y Kudo et al
666
infrequent. Currently, there are few surviving Isseis, and
Niseis and Sanseis account for the majority of the Japanese
population in the USA.
The diet of Japanese-Americans was generally considered to re¯ect the historical and cultural background discussed above, suggesting that their nutritional problems
may be unique to changes in food patterns re¯ecting
acculturation. However, while the majority of previous
studies focused on nutrient intake in relationship to dietrelated chronic disease, generation- and gender-speci®c
eating habits and food patterns associated with ethnic
identity during the acculturation process within JapaneseAmericans are understudied. Investigation of food patterns
may elucidate dietary sources of nutrients and may aid in
identifying problematic eating behaviors (ie those that may
contribute to chronic disease). This information could
subsequently be used to design effective dietary intervention strategies to facilitate the adoption of eating behaviors
conducive to achieving optimal nutrition status and health
for the Japanese-American population. Toward this purpose, this cross-sectional cohort study was designed to
examine trends in meal patterns and food choices across
two succeeding generations of Japanese-American females
born in the USA.
Methods
Sample population
Subjects for this cross-sectional study were second generation (Nisei) and third generation (Sansei) Japanese-American females (daughters and grand-daughters, respectively
of immigrants from Japan) raised and educated in the
United States, and currently residing in Los Angeles,
California. Nisei were recruited through announcements
made at a daily morning exercise class for senior citizens
during December 1998 through January 1999 at a community gymnasium in Gardena City, a suburb of Los Angeles,
California. According to the 1990 US Census (Bureau of
the US Census in Gardena, Los Angeles, 1990), the
ethnicity of the suburb is predominately Asian (31.9%),
of which Japanese-Americans comprise 18% of the suburb
population of 53,848.
Rosters and background information on Japanese-American females registered in the exercise classes were available through the leader of the senior citizen organization.
Some 80 ± 85% of approximately 400 regular senior participants aged over 60 y were Japanese-Americans, of whom
65% were Nisei females. Once recruited, the Nisei were
asked to provide promotional information about the study
to their daughters. Sansei interested in participating in the
study contacted the researchers and were recruited by
telephone.
Inclusion and exclusion criteria were as follows. The
Nisei mothers had to (1) be of pure Japanese descendants
born in the US (eg both parents migrated from Japan to the
US); (2) have married a Japanese-American male whose
ancestors had also migrated from Japan to the US, and (3)
have at least one daughter. The Sansei daughter group
included: (1) those whose parents and both sets of grandparents were of Japanese descent; and (2) those living
separately from their Nisei mothers. The Nisei mothers or
the Sansei daughters who were born in the USA but spent
their childhood in Japan for education were excluded. The
sample pool for this study was 220 Nisei females. Onehundred and seventy-nine Nisei had Sansei daughters who
European Journal of Clinical Nutrition
agreed to participate in this study. Eighty-eight Nisei and
Sansei pairs met the inclusion criteria as stated above. All
subjects signed informed consent to participate in this study.
Materials and methods
A questionnaire using a multiple-choice format, available
in both English and Japanese, was developed to obtain
demographic characteristics and dietary intake information
regarding meal patterns and food choices. Demographic
variables collected included age, education, employment,
immigration year of ancestors, and residence status.
Since the purpose of this study was to determine usual
meal patterns and food choices instead of nutrient intake,
dietary intake information was obtained using a self-administered food frequency questionnaire (FFQ). The FFQ list
developed for this study consisted of 51 food items including popular American and Japanese foods. Approximately
half of the items were adapted from Hankin's questionnaire
(Hankin et al, 1991). The other items, particularly Japanese-culture speci®c foods, were added from the list of the
1996 National Nutritional Survey conducted in Japan
(Ministry of Health and Welfare of Japan, 1998). Each
subject was asked to rate her usual weekly frequency of
consumption of the listed foods as well as meals, snacks
and eating out. The reliability of the FFQ questionnaire was
tested by running Chronbach's a using SPSS statistic software. The range of Chronbach's a was 0.62 to 1.00.
Instructions were provided on all forms and questionnaires in English and Japanese. Nisei mothers were given
two sets of questionnaires at exercise classes, one set to
complete by themselves and one set to give to their
daughters. Completed questionnaires were returned to the
researchers by mail.
Data analyses
Mean frequency scores for meals, snacks, eating out and
individual food items were used to describe dietary patterns
and food choices for two generations of Japanese-American
females. Signi®cant differences in food consumption and
meal patterns between the two generations were determined
by Student's t-test (STATA statistical software, 1999). A
signi®cance criterion of P < 0.05 was used for all analyses.
The model proposed by Kocturk-Runefors (1991) was
used to further elucidate the nature of the dietary changes
that had occurred after migration among the JapaneseAmerican study participants. According to this model,
dietary habit changes are suggested to proceed in a continuum, where `identity' and `taste' form the opposing
poles. Further, the model purports that, when designing a
menu, an immigrant asserts his=her cultural identity by
selecting foods from the `identity' pole of the continuum.
These foods include staple foods, which are usually carbohydrate-rich with a neutral taste. When new foods are
incorporated into the diet, however, food selection proceeds
from the `taste' pole of the continuum, which consists
primarily of accessory foods including fats, herbs and
spices, sweets and snacks. In between the staple and
accessory foods lie the complement foods which the
model suggests change more gradually with acculturation
than accessory foods but more quickly than staple foods.
To assess whether this model held true in the present
study, food items on the FFQ were grouped into staple,
complement and accessory foods and were arranged into
hierarchical order within each group based on mean frequency of consumption. Food schemes were then compared
Evolution of meal pattern and food choices
Y Kudo et al
against each other and against similarly arranged Japanese
dietary data collected from historical documents at the turn
of the century (Tanaka et al, 1992, Wenkam and Wolff,
1970; Yanagihara, 1977) to assess generational changes in
food selection patterns. This latter dietary data was chosen
to re¯ect the period when ®rst-generation Japanese immigrants migrated from Japan to the USA.
Results
Sample population characteristics
Table 1 summarizes demographic characteristics of the 88
Japanese-American females who participated in this study.
The majority of subjects were descendants of Japanese
immigrants who came from Japan to the USA between
the 1880s and the 1920s. The mean age ( + standard
deviation) of the Nisei mothers was 72.3 ( + 5.6) y, while
that of the Sansei daughters was 43.2 ( + 6.3) y. Both
groups had a minimum of a high school education.
Ninety-three percent of the Sansei completed more than
2 y of college, while only 32% of the Nisei received more
than a college education. More than half of the Nisei
mothers lived in an Asian neighborhood (68%), and 30%
lived alone. No Nisei mothers were working, and the
median range of annual income was $30,000 ± 39,999. In
contrast, the Sansei daughters predominantly lived outside
of an Asian community (61%), and only 7% lived alone.
Almost all of the Sansei daughters (93%) had either fulltime (70%) or part-time jobs (23%), and they mostly earned
more than $50,000 in income per year (77%).
Meal patterns
Table 2 demonstrates signi®cant generational differences in
meal and eating patterns between the Nisei mothers and the
Table 1 Demographic characteristics of the Japanese-American Nisei
mothers and Sansei daughters
Nisei mothers
Sansei daughters
Second generation Third generation
a
(n ˆ 44) (% (n)) (n ˆ 44) (% (n))a
Age
30 ± 39
40 ± 49
50 ± 59
60 ± 69
70 ± 79
80 ± 89
Education
High school
Vocational school
College
University
Graduate school
Living in an Asian neighborhood
Living arrangements
Alone
With husband
With relatives=others
Employment
Full time
Part time
Not working
Annual income (US$)
Less than 20,000
20,000 ± 29,999
30,000 ± 39,999
40,000 ± 49,999
50,000 or more
a
30 (13)
57 (25)
14 (6)
59
9
18
9
5
68
(26)
(4)
(8)
(4)
(2)
(30)
32 (14)
50 (22)
18 (8)
5
2
39
45
9
39
(2)
(1)
(17)
(20)
(4)
(17)
30 (13)
61 (27)
9 (4)
7 (3)
70 (31)
23 (10)
100 (44)
70 (31)
23 (10)
7 (3)
20
23
18
7
32
(9)
(10)
(8)
(3)
(14)
7
2
14
77
(3)
(1)
(6)
(34)
Percentages may not add to a total of 100 because of rounding.
Sansei daughters. Compared with the Nisei mothers who
usually ate three meals per day, the Sansei daughters ate
signi®cantly fewer meals, of which breakfast was the most
frequently skipped. The mean weekly frequencies of takeout foods and eating out, in contrast, were signi®cantly
higher in the Sansei daughters, compared with the Nisei
mothers.
667
Food choices
Tables 3 ± 5 present mean weekly frequency of intake of
selected food items (as speci®ed on the FFQ) for the Nisei
mothers and the Sansei daughters. The 51 food items on the
FFQ were classi®ed into three food categories: animal
origin foods and fats (Table 3); plant origin foods (Table
4); and sweets, snacks, beverages and seasonings (Table 5).
In the animal origin food group, neither the consumption
of meats nor that of eggs was signi®cantly different
between the Nisei mothers and the Sansei daughters
(Table 3). Among the seafood group, fresh and dried ®sh
consumption was lower in the Sansei vs the Nisei. Among
the dairy foods, the Sansei consumed cheese more often
than the Nisei. Within the fat group, the Sansei consumed
butter and margarine signi®cantly less often than the Nisei.
In the plant origin food group, the consumption of
legumes was lower in the Sansei daughters compared to
their Nisei mothers (Table 4). This difference between
Table 2 Mean ( + standard deviation) weekly frequencies of meals,
take-out foods and eating out in diets of Nisei mothers and Sansei
daughters
Breakfast
Lunch
Dinner
Take-out foods
Eating out
Nisei
Sansei
P-value
6.9 + 0.5
6.8 + 0.7
7.0 + 0.0
1.3 + 1.1
2.0 + 1.3
5.0+ 2.4
6.4+ 1.0
6.7+ 1.1
2.9+ 1.7
4.6+ 2.6
0.00
0.01
0.03
0.00
0.01
Table 3 Differences in intake of animal origin foods and fats between
the Nisei and the Sansei
Mean frequencies=
week + s.d.
Food items
Meats
Beef=ground beef
Hamburger
Pork
Ham=luncheon meats
Sausage=hot dog
Chicken
Eggs
Seafood
Fish=dried ®sh
Shell®sh
Canned ®sh
Dairy foods
Milk
Yogurt
Cheese
Fats
Butter=margarine
Bacon
Salad dressing=mayonnaise
Vegetable oils
Difference
(%)a
P-value
Nisei
Sansei
2.2 + 1.5
0.9 + 0.9
1.0 + 0.9
1.1 + 1.0
0.6 + 0.7
3.1 + 1.4
1.9 + 1.5
2.4+ 1.6
1.1+ 1.2
0.8+ 0.7
1.1+ 1.2
0.4+ 0.6
3.4+ 1.5
1.4+ 1.5
9
22
20
0
33
10
26
NS
NS
NS
NS
NS
NS
NS
1.7 + 1.2 0.9+ 1.3
0.6 + 0.8 0.5+ 0.9
1.1 + 0.8 0.9+ 0.9
47
17
18
0.00
NS
NS
3.8 + 2.9 3.1+ 2.9
1.0 + 1.6 0.9+ 1.2
1.0 + 1.0 1.7+ 1.7
18
10
70
NS
NS
0.01
3.8 + 2.5
0.5 + 1.0
3.3 + 2.0
2.8 + 1.7
24
20
6
4
0.03
NS
NS
NS
2.9+ 1.9
0.4+ 0.6
3.5+ 2.0
2.7+ 2.2
NS ˆ not signi®cant.
% Difference ˆ total frequencies of (Sansei 7 Nisei=Nisei)6100.
a
European Journal of Clinical Nutrition
Evolution of meal pattern and food choices
Y Kudo et al
668
Table 4 Differences in intake of plant origin foods between the Nisei and
the Sansei
Mean frequencies=
week + s.d.
Food items
Plant origin foods
Legumes:
Dry beans=peas
Tofu
Vegetables
Fresh vegetables
Frozen vegetables
Canned vegetables
Potatoes=fried potatoes
Japanese dried vegetables
Japanese pickled vegetables
Mushroom
Seaweed
Fruits
Fresh fruits
Canned fruits
Fruit juice
Staple foods
Rice
Bread=rolls
Ready-to-eat-cereals
Oriental noodles
Pasta
Pancakes
Nisei
Sansei
Difference
(%)a
P-value
1.0+ 1.2 0.3 + 1.0
3.0+ 1.8 1.6 + 1.6
70
47
0.00
0.00
6.0+ 1.8
1.3+ 1.3
1.2+ 1.2
1.2+ 0.8
1.5+ 1.4
3.3+ 2.3
0.8+ 1.1
1.7+ 1.3
5.1 + 2.3
1.3 + 1.4
1.3 + 1.3
1.8 + 1.4
0.7 + 1.3
1.3 + 1.5
0.8 + 1.2
1.3 + 1.6
15
0
8
50
53
61
0
24
0.02
NS
NS
0.01
0.00
0.00
NS
NS
6.2+ 1.9 4.7 + 2.2
1.4+ 1.3 0.7 + 1.0
4.4+ 2.5 4.7 + 2.9
24
70
7
0.00
0.00
NS
6.5+ 1.2
5.3+ 1.9
2.9+ 2.6
1.9+ 1.3
1.2+ 1.1
0.5+ 0.6
22
9
14
16
50
20
0.00
NS
NS
NS
0.01
NS
5.1 + 2.2
4.8 + 2.2
2.5 + 2.3
1.6 + 1.5
1.8 + 1.3
0.6 + 1.1
NS ˆ not signi®cant
a
% Difference ˆ total frequencies of (Sansei 7 Nisei=Nisei)6100.
generations could be attributed to the lower consumption of
beans, peas and tofu (soybean curd) in the Sansei vs the
Nisei. Among the vegetables, the consumption of fresh
vegetables was lower in the Sansei compared to the Nisei,
as was intake of Japanese-style dried and pickled vegetables. The consumption of potatoes (including fried potatoes), in contrast, was higher for the Sansei vs the Nisei.
With respect to fruit consumption, fresh fruits were consumed more often and canned fruits were consumed less
often in the Sansei vs the Nisei. For staple foods, rice and
pasta appeared to change places in dietary priority in
succeeding generations. The Sansei consumed rice signi®cantly less often than the Nisei.
For `accessory' type foods, such as sweets, snacks and
beverages, Sansei daughters consumed more of the `Westernized' versions of these food items than their Nisei
mothers (Table 5). Speci®cally, the Sansei had higher
intakes of salty snacks, regular soft drinks and alcoholic
beverages than the Nisei. In contrast, Nisei mothers consumed more of the traditional Japanese snacks and beverages, such as Japanese sweets (cooked sweet beans,
manjyu and yokan) and green tea. Also, the Nisei's use
of traditional Japanese spices, such as soy sauce and miso,
was greater as compared to their Sansei daughters.
Table 5 Differences in intake of sweets, snack, beverages and seasoning
between the Nisei mothers and the Sansei daughters
Mean frequencies=
week + s.d.
Food items
Sweets and snacks
Pie=cake
Chocolate=candy
Ice cream
Japanese sweets
Salty snacks
Beverages
Coffee
Green tea
Soft drinks (regular)
Alcoholic beverage
Seasoning
Soy sauce
Miso=miso soup
Teriyaki sauce
Catsup
Sauce mix=BBQ sauce
Nisei
Sansei
Difference
(%)a
P-value
1.3 + 1.2
2.3 + 2.1
1.3 + 1.6
1.2 + 1.5
2.0 + 1.8
1.1 + 1.5
2.6 + 2.2
1.1 + 1.3
0.5 + 0.8
2.8 + 2.1
15
13
15
58
40
NS
NS
NS
0.00
0.03
4.7 + 3.0
5.1 + 2.5
1.6 + 1.9
0.1 + 0.3
4.7 + 3.1
2.3 + 2.2
3.2 + 3.0
0.5 + 1.1
0
55
100
400
NS
0.00
0.00
0.00
4.5 + 1.8
2.1 + 1.4
1.3 + 1.3
1.4 + 1.1
0.7 + 0.8
3.0 + 1.9
1.0 + 1.5
1.4 + 1.4
1.3 + 1.5
0.7 + 1.1
33
52
8
7
0
0.00
0.00
NS
NS
NS
NS ˆ not signi®cant
a
% Difference ˆ total frequencies of (Sansei 7 Nisei=Nisei)6100.
Japan, rice as a staple food was generally consumed three
times a day. In the complement group, the most frequently
eaten were vegetables, namely mushrooms and seaweed,
while the least frequently consumed were dairy foods. For
the accessory foods, soy sauce and miso were eaten at
every meal, and fats formed a minor part of the diet.
In comparison with the Japanese diet before migration,
rice remained a staple food in the Nisei diet, while breads
and cereals were newly incorporated into this group.
Within the complement food category, the vegetables=
mushrooms=seaweed group, which was eaten the most
frequently before migration, maintained the same ranking
in the Nisei diet. However, the legumes=beans=tofu group,
seafood and eggs were replaced in the hierarchy of the food
selection scheme by meats and dairy foods. Within the
accessory food category, soy sauce and miso, which previously were top ranking condiments in the traditional
Japanese diet, were displaced by fats in the Nisei diet.
For the Sansei daughters as compared to their Nisei
mothers, the order of rice remained unchanged among the
staple food category. Within the complement food category, only one food shift occurred. The legumes=
beans=tofu group was replaced in the hierarchy by seafood.
With respect to accessory foods, fat maintained a top
position in the ranking scheme. Conversely, sweets rose
to a higher rank, replacing fresh fruits. Snacks and soft
drinks rose one position in the hierarchy while soy sauce,
miso and green tea fell three.
Discussion
Food selection patterns
Table 6 compares food selection schemes across three
generations of Japanese-American females. Schemes were
designed according to the model by Kocturk-Runefors
(1991). The scheme depicting the Japanese diet before
migration represents the typical Japanese diet during the
period of migration from the late nineteenth to the early
twentieth centuries of Japan, and served as an ancestral
scheme for comparative purposes. During this period in
European Journal of Clinical Nutrition
Several important generational differences in meal patterns
and food choices were found between the Sansei and the
Nisei in this study. The changes in meal patterns observed
indicate that, as the custom of three meals a day has faded
across generations, their appears to be a concurrent increase
in the use of take-out foods and frequency of dining out.
The changing dining habits of the Sansei may be partly
attributable to a changing demographic pro®le among
Japanese-American females. A greater proportion of
Evolution of meal pattern and food choices
Y Kudo et al
Table 6 Food selection schemes for succeeding generations of Japanese-American females. The hierarchy of food selection within each group is
compared to the food selection continuum (far left column) proposed by Koctuck-Runefors (1991). Foods at the Identity pole of the continuum in each
group of subjects represent foods that are attached to cultural identity. Foods at the Taste pole of the continuum in each group are foods that enhance the
taste of basic foods. Numbers in parentheses denote mean frequencies of intake per week
Food selection continuum
!
!
Identity
Taste
Japanese diet before migration
Staple foods
Rice
Complement foods
Vegetables=mushrooms=seaweed
Legumes=beans=tofu
Seafood
Eggs
Meats
Dairy foods
Accessory foods
Soy sauce=miso
Nisei mothers
Sansei daughters
Staple foods
Rice (6.5)
Bread (5.3)
Cereals (2.9)
Complement foods
Vegetables=mushrooms=seaweed (17.0)
Meats (8.9)
Dairy foods (5.8)
Legumes=beans=tofu (4.0)
Seafood (3.4)
Eggs (1.9)
Accessory foods
Fats (10.4)
Soy sauce=miso (6.6)
Fresh fruits (6.2)
Sweets (6.1)
Green tea (5.1)
Coffee (4.7)
Snacks (3.4)
Soft drinks (1.6)
Staple foods
Rice (5.1)
Bread (4.8)
Cereals (2.5)
Complement foods
Vegetables=mushrooms=seaweed (13.6)
Meats (9.2)
Dairy foods (5.7)
Seafood (2.3)
Legumes=beans=tofu (1.9)
Eggs (1.4)
Accessory foods
Fats (9.5)
Sweets (5.3)
Fresh fruits (4.7)
Coffee (4.7)
Soy sauce=miso (4.0)
Snacks (3.8)
Soft drinks (3.2)
Green tea (2.3)
Sansei were employed, had a higher income level and thus
could afford the luxury of eating or obtaining meals outside
the home.
This growing trend among younger Japanese Americans
to `eat out' may contribute to a reduction in intake of foods
attached to Japanese cultural identity, as was observed in
this study. These foods included ®sh, legumes such as tofu,
vegetables, green tea, and Japanese ¯avorings. Most of
these foods appear to be dif®cult to obtain outside the
home. Nestle (1994) reported that Asian cuisine is typically
altered in restaurants to contain more animal products and
less traditionally Japanese ingredients. For similar reasons,
traditional Japanese accessory foods may be replaced by
more `Westernized' additives, potentially contributing to
higher intakes of fat, salt and sugar.
One of the favorable ®ndings in food selection across
generations of Japanese-American females was that the
consumption of meats and eggs, generally considered
predominant sources of saturated fat and cholesterol in
the American diet, did not increase from the Nisei to the
Sansei. Further, intake of obvious fat, such as butter and
margarine, declined in the diet of the Sansei compared to
the Nisei. These ®ndings support recent data from Tsunehara et al (1990) demonstrating that dietary fat intake has
declined over the last few decades among Japanese Americans. Our ®nding, in combination with those from Tsunehara, is noteworthy given that total fat intake was reported
to be on the increase among Japanese-Americans from the
turn of the century to the pre-World War II years (Wenkam
and Wolff, 1970).
The scheme of food selection patterns described in this
study indicated that, among all food items examined, rice
and vegetables ranked among the most frequently consumed foods in the diet across three generations of Japanese-American females. These ®ndings follow the model of
Kocturk-Runefors, which suggests that succeeding generations of immigrants will maintain intake of foods attached
to cultural identity longer than foods that enhance the taste
and palatability of basic foods. Additional support for this
model comes from Ohnuki-Tierney (1993), who, in
describing the Japanese food culture, reports that the
669
Japanese describe rice as `self ', and that the term for
cooked rice in the Japanese culture means `meal'. Vegetables in the Japanese diet are also referred to as `nature' in
the seasonal essays of Yanagihara and Yanagihara (1992), a
master of the cuisine for the ceremony of tea. Since rice and
vegetables have layers of meaning in everyday Japanese
life, occupy a prominent place in the Japanese-American
food selection scheme, and are healthful food choices,
maintaining interest in these foods may play a key role in
promoting overall nutritional status and health among
Japanese-Americans.
Our ®ndings with respect to accessory foods also follow
the model proposed by Kocturk-Runefors. This researcher
suggested that, when new foods are incorporated into the
diet of immigrants, they frequently are foods comprising
the accessory food group, including sweets, snacks and soft
drinks. We observed that salty snacks, soft-drinks, and
alcoholic beverages were consumed at a higher frequency
in succeeding generations, while the intake of more traditional Japanese accessory foods, for example cooked sweet
beans and spices, decreased. Increasing consumption of
snacks, soft drinks, and alcoholic beverages in the Sansei
diets compared to the Nisei may re¯ect Kocturk-Runefors'
(1991) views that accessory foods are not culturally recognized as `real foods'. As such, these researchers suggest
that the consumption of these foods is likely to be ignored
by individuals, resulting in over-indulgence. Excess intake
of accessory foods can potentially contribute to increased
intakes of fat, sodium, sugar and calories, all undesirable
dietary changes from the health point of view. JapaneseAmerican females should be alerted that some food tradeoffs may have negative health consequences.
In conclusion, ®ndings from this study support the
notion that dietary changes have occurred among succeeding generations of Japanese-American females. Transition
from the traditional Japanese diet to a more `Westernized'
diet is observed mainly in the accessory food category, with
increased use of salty snacks, soft drinks and alcoholic
beverages. Further studies are needed to determine the
reasons for the observed dietary changes and whether
dietary alterations in accessory foods may contribute to
European Journal of Clinical Nutrition
Evolution of meal pattern and food choices
Y Kudo et al
670
an overall increase in dietary fat, sugar, salt and alcohol,
and potentially contribute to greater health risk. Findings
from this study also suggest that acculturation of JapaneseAmericans may have contributed to lower intakes of foods
common in the traditional Japanese diet, such as ®sh,
legumes, beans and fruits. Given that these foods are
highly regarded as health promoting foods, it would be
advisable to inform Japanese immigrants about the nutritional bene®ts of these traditional foods.
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