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Grade 12 Unit 2 LANGUAGE ARTS 1202 THE STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE CONTENTS I. PARTS OF SPEECH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 Nouns and Noun Substitutes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 Verbs and Verb Phrases. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 Adjectives and Adverbs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 Prepositions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 Conjunctions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 Interjections. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 II. THE STRUCTURE OF SENTENCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 Kinds of Sentences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 Parts of the Sentence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 III. METHODS OF SUBORDINATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 Prepositional Phrases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 Verbal Phrases. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 Dependent Clauses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 The Appositive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33 The Nominative Absolute . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34 Author: Editor: Illustrator: Dorothy A. Galde, M.A. Alan Christopherson, M.S. Alpha Omega Graphics 804 N. 2nd Ave. E., Rock Rapids, IA 51246-1759 © MM by Alpha Omega Publications, Inc. All rights reserved. LIFEPAC is a registered trademark of Alpha Omega Publications, Inc. All trademarks and/or service marks referenced in this material are the property of their respective owners. Alpha Omega Publications, Inc. makes no claim of ownership to any trademarks and/or service marks other than their own and their affiliates’, and makes no claim of affiliation to any companies whose trademarks may be listed in this material, other than their own. ii THE STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE Although many grammatical errors traditionally have been treated as unrelated problems, recently we have begun looking at language as a whole. Sentence fragments, fused sentences, dangling modifiers, and other similar errors actually result from one problem—grammatical structure. Total sentence meaning includes both lexical, or definable, meaning and structural meaning. If grammatical structure is clear, then the total meaning of a sentence should also be clear. Most sentence errors result from structural signals that are either ambiguous or inconsistent with lexical meaning. Using the English language may be compared to driving an automobile: Many Americans know how to use it, but they do not care to understand how it operates. However, if you do understand auto mechanics, you can operate your car more efficiently; and, if you understand language structure, you can communicate more effectively by being able to identify and avoid many grammatical errors. In this LIFEPAC® you will review the parts of speech: nouns, pronouns (noun substitutes), verbs, adjectives, adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions, and interjections. You will study the function of each of these language units. You will also review sentence structure by studying the types of sentences through the use of subordination. You will also study verb phrases, dependent clauses, appositives, and nominative absolutes. OBJECTIVES Read these objectives. The objectives tell you what you will be able to do when you have successfully completed this LIFEPAC. When you have completed this LIFEPAC, you should be able to: 1. Identify the parts of speech. 2. Determine the part of speech of a word by its function in a sentence. 3. Identify and use different kinds of sentences for variety of expression. 4. Identify, form, and use verbals knowledgeably. 5. Identify, form, and use the three types of dependent clauses. 6. Recognize and use the nominative absolute. Survey the LIFEPAC. Ask yourself some questions about this study. Write your questions here. ________________________________________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________________________________________ I. PARTS OF SPEECH The study of modern American English grammar may be approached in several ways. Traditionally, grammar is prescriptive because it tries to prescribe what grammar should be. The identification of parts of speech began with Aristotle. By the time of Christ, eight different parts of speech had been classified. Only slight variations in these parts of speech have occurred during the long history of the study of grammar. Descriptive grammar, or structural linguistics, is a more modern approach. This approach, beginning with spoken language forms, classifies words by their function within a given sentence. Descriptive grammar and traditional grammar may use similar classifications and terms. 1 Generative, or transformational, grammar is one of the newest approaches. Although generative grammar might be considered an outgrowth of descriptive grammar in some respects, a major difference lies in the fact that it describes rules for all possible English sentences; traditional and descriptive grammar describe those sentences that already exist. A combination of these three approaches—the classification of grammatical structure as it should be, the description of grammar as it is used, and the rules for forming all possible grammatical combinations—should bring a deeper understanding of language. In this section you will study the parts of speech and their function in sentences. You will review nouns and noun substitutes, verbs and verb phrases, modifiers, prepositions, conjunctions, and interjections. You are probably familiar with all of these parts of speech, but the benefits of proper usage warrant the time spent in review. SECTION OBJECTIVES Review these objectives. When you have completed this section, you should be able to: 1. Identify the parts of speech. 2. Determine the part of speech of a word by its function in a sentence. NOUNS AND NOUN SUBSTITUTES Without nouns we would have no sentences. Sentences must have nouns or noun substitutes to indicate the subject of a verb. Nouns. Nouns are naming words such as car, horse, school Frank, Colorado River, safety, and love—words that we use primarily to stand for things, animals, places, people, and ideas. The tangible objects are called concrete nouns. Thought processes, ideas, or other intangible things, including hatred, sovereignty, and devotion are called abstract nouns. Nouns normally have a separate form for the singular and for the plural. They also take inflectional endings for showing ownership or possession. Nominative: Possessive: Singular car school girl’s student’s Plural cars schools girls’ students’ Noun substitutes. Any word or group of words that substitutes for a noun is called either a pronoun or a noun substitute. These substituting words function in the same way a noun functions. Notice the noun substitutes in the following sentences. Nobody is responsible. The wise make plans for eternity. All have sinned and come short of the glory of God. Listening to the Lord is important. How long he stays is still in doubt. Each of the preceding italicized words or groups of words is used as the subject of the sentence. Since a subject has to be a noun or pronoun, these subjects are either nouns or noun substitutes. 2 Pronouns. Pronouns fall into six categories. Each category has a different function. Category Function Examples Relative Introduces dependent clauses who, whom, whose, which, that Interrogative Asks questions who? whom? whose? which? what? Demonstrative Points out this, that, these, those Reflexive Reflects or intensifies myself, yourself, himself, itself, ourselves, yourselves, themselves Indefinite Indicates an unknown Singular one, anyone, someone, no one, none, everyone, anybody, somebody, nobody, everybody, anything, something, nothing, everything, much, either, neither, another Plural many, all, others, few, several, some, most Personal Takes the place of proper nouns Singular Nominative Case 1st person I 2nd person you 3rd person he she it Objective Case me you him her it Plural 1st person we us 2nd person you you 3rd person they them Possessive Case my, mine your, yours his her its our, ours your, yours their, theirs The nominative case is used for subject and subject complement. The objective case is used for direct object, indirect object, object of the preposition. The possessive case forms— my, your, his, her, its, our, your, and their—are used as adjectives. Since they are both pronouns and adjectives, they are called pronominal adjectives. The possessive forms—mine, your, his, hers, its, ours, yours, and theirs—are used in place of nouns as subject(ive) complements. Notice that the possessive personal pronouns have no apostrophes because a special word has been constructed indicating possession. ➛ List the nouns and pronouns in the following passage; then answer the questions. “Teach me, O Lord the way of thy statutes; and I shall keep it unto the end. Give me understanding and I shall keep thy law; yea, I shall observe it with my whole heart.” 1.1 Nouns: a. ______________________________________________ e. ____________________________________________ b. ______________________________________________ f. ____________________________________________ c. ______________________________________________ g. ____________________________________________ d. ______________________________________________ 1.2 Pronouns: a. ______________________________________________ f. ____________________________________________ b. ______________________________________________ g. ____________________________________________ c. ______________________________________________ h. ____________________________________________ d. ______________________________________________ i. ____________________________________________ e. ______________________________________________ j. ____________________________________________ 3 1.3 What kind of pronouns are used in the passage? ____________________________________________ 1.4 How many of these pronouns are in the nominative case? ________________________________________ 1.5 How many of these pronouns are in the objective case? ______________________________________ 1.6 How many of these pronouns are in the possessive case? ____________________________________ ➛ List the nouns and pronouns in the following passage. “If thine enemy be hungry, give him bread to eat, and if he be thirsty, give him water to drink; for thou shalt heap coals of fire upon his head, and the Lord shall reward thee.” 1.7 Nouns: a. ______________________________________________ e. ____________________________________________ b. ______________________________________________ f. ____________________________________________ c. ______________________________________________ g. ____________________________________________ d. ______________________________________________ 1.8 Pronouns: a. ______________________________________________ e. ____________________________________________ b. ______________________________________________ f. ____________________________________________ c. ______________________________________________ g. ____________________________________________ d. ______________________________________________ ➛ List the pronouns in the preceding passage by case. 1.9 Nominative: a._______________________ b._______________________ 1.10 Objective: b._______________________ c._______________________ 1.11 Possessive: a._______________________ ➛ Complete these activities. 1.12 Name ten indefinite pronouns: a._______________________ b._______________________ a. ______________________________________________ f. ____________________________________________ b. ______________________________________________ g. ____________________________________________ c. ______________________________________________ h. ____________________________________________ 1.13 d. ______________________________________________ i. ____________________________________________ e. ______________________________________________ j. ____________________________________________ What two lists of pronouns are almost the same? a. ______________________________________________ 1.14 b. ____________________________________________ What is the use of the reflexive pronoun? __________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________________________________ 1.15 Name three positions in the sentence used by the personal pronoun, objective case. a. ______________________________ , b. ______________________________ , c. ______________________________ 4 VERBS AND VERB PHRASES A sentence must express a complete thought; it needs a noun or pronoun subject. The word or group of words that tells what the subject is or what it does is called the verb. Characteristics of verbs. Verbs are words that by their inflections (endings) show time or tense. The six tenses in the English language are these: Present tense — action happening now, this minute, today Past tense — action that happened and was completed in the past Future tense — action that is expected to happen up ahead Present perfect tense — past action at any time before now Past perfect tense — past action completed before another past action Future perfect tense (seldom used) — action completed before a set time in the future Verbs are classified as regular or irregular by the way they form their principal parts. Regular verbs form their past and past participle by adding -d, -ed, or -t to the present form. Present burn (burns) talk believe Past burned or burnt talked believed Present Participle burning talking believing Past Participle burned or burnt talked believed Irregular verbs have no pattern or set inflections for forming their past and past participles. Be is the most irregular form in the language and has eight forms: be, am, is, are, was, were, being, been. Present Past Present Participle Past Participle begin began beginning begun choose chose choosing chosen do did doing done eat ate eating eaten freeze froze freezing frozen get got getting gotten go went going gone have had having had know knew knowing known lose lost losing lost ride rode riding ridden shake shook shaking shaken teach taught teaching taught tear tore tearing torn write wrote writing written The present form is used with will and shall to form the future tenses. The past form never has an auxiliary. The present participle adds -ing to the present and always requires a being auxiliary to be used as the predicate verb. The past participle always uses have, has, or had to form the present and past perfect tenses and a being verb to form the passive voice. These four forms are called the principal parts of a verb because all forms of a verb are made from them. 5 When it is used to provide the action or state of being of a sentence, the verb is called the simple predicate. The predicate may be one word or a group of words that is called a verb phrase. To know what words in the sentence are part of the verb phrase, one must know the auxiliaries. Some of the twenty-three auxiliaries are verbs in their own right and can be used alone as predicates. The first fourteen fall into this group: am, are, is, was, were, be, been, being (the verb to be), have, has, had (the verb to have), do, does, did (the verb to do). The other auxiliaries can be used only as auxiliaries and are called modals. The root verb may not be expressed but it must be implied. Modals are can, could, shall, should, will, would, may, might, must. Johnny ate his lunch. (One-word verb) Dorothy should certainly have been found by now. (Verb phrase) Notice that should, have, and been are in your list of auxiliaries. Certainly is not in the list. Other words can be dropped into the middle of a verb phrase, but that does not make them verbs. The word found in that sentence is called the root verb; it is the past participle of the verb to find. You should learn not only how to recognize verbs but also how to use appropriate verb forms in your speech and in your writing. The conjugation of a verb is the schematic arrangement of the inflectional forms of a verb. Active voice means that the subject is doing the acting; passive voice means that the subject is receiving the action of the verb. Conjugation of the verb to choose in active and passive voice Indicative Mood Active Voice Passive Voice Present Tense Singular Plural Singular Plural I choose you choose he chooses we choose you choose they choose I am chosen you are chosen he is chosen we are chosen you are chosen they are chosen we chose you chose they chose I was chosen you were chosen he was chosen we were chosen you were chosen they were chosen we shall choose you will choose they will choose I shall be chosen you will be chosen he will be chosen we shall be chosen you will be chosen he will be chosen we have chosen you have chosen they have chosen I have been chosen you have been chosen he has been chosen we have been chosen you have been chosen they have been chosen we had chosen you had chosen they had chosen I had been chosen you had been chosen he had been chosen we had been chosen you had been chosen they had been chosen Past Tense I chose you chose he chose Future Tense I shall choose you will choose he will choose Present Perfect Tense I have chosen you have chosen he has chosen Past Perfect Tense I had chosen you had chosen he had chosen 6 Future Perfect Tense I shall have chosen you will have chosen he will have chosen we shall have chosen you will have chosen they will have chosen I shall have been chosen you will have been chosen he will have been chosen we shall have been chosen you will have been chosen they will have been chosen In the indicative mood, the mood expressing fact or truth, present tense, third person, singular, every verb in the English language ends in s. It is called the s verb. Try conjugating any verb in the present tense and notice this phenomenon: I go, you go, he goes; I study, you study, he studies; I build, you build, she builds; I swim, you swim, she swims. All the third person singular verbs end in s. The failure to comply with this idiosyncrasy by a speaker or a writer results in substandard usage, which is often viewed as ignorance. One other form of the verb is the progressive form: I am seeing, you are seeing, she is seeing, we are seeing, you are seeing, they are seeing in the present tense. In the passive voice this conjugation would be I am being seen and so on. All verbs cannot be expressed in the passive voice. Most verbs can be stated in the progressive form. The subjunctive mood deals with desire, wish, or conditions that do not exist: I wish I were more creative, but I am not. Difficult verbs. Three sets of verbs seem to cause problems in usage for some speakers and writers. They are lie and lay, sit and set, rise and raise. To understand these verbs better, you need to know that some verbs indicate action that must be received; these verbs are called transitive verbs. Others verbs do not indicate action because they are not action verbs or because they do not require a receiver. These verbs are called intransitive, not transitive. The dictionary indicates v.t. for verb transitive or v.i. for verb intransitive. Look at the principal parts of these six problem verbs. Infinitive Form Present Past Present Participle Past Participle v.i. to lie lie(s) lay lying lain v.t. to lay lay(s) laid laying laid v.i. to sit sit(s) sat sitting sat v.t. to set set(s) set setting set v.i. to rise rise(s) rose rising risen v.t. to raise raise(s) raised raising raised The problem with lie and lay results from the fact that the past of lie is lay, which is the present of lay. Today I lie in bed; yesterday I lay there; I have lain in bed a week. Today I lay the book down. (Notice the receiver of the action is book.) Yesterday I laid the book down. I have laid every book in place. 7 The thing to remember is that you always lay something down, you always set something down, and you always raise something. However, after you lay something down, it lies there. Action or linking verbs. Of all the verbs in the language, only a handful can be used as linking verbs. Most verbs show action of some kind—mental, spiritual, emotional, or actual overt action. Some action verbs require a receiver of action. Transitive active: Doris rode the chairlift. Other action verbs may not require a receiver. Intransitive complete: Doris scowled. If an action verb is in the passive voice, thus indicating that the subject receives the action, it is called transitive passive: George was elected to office. If a linking verb is used, the sentence is called intransitive linking: Mary is a good student. The most common linking verb is the verb to be with all its forms. This means that whenever any form of the verb to be is the root verb, an intransitive linking construction is present. Think of the auxiliaries that could be used with be: could have been, should have been, might have been, must have been, may be, can be. Other common linking verbs are become, seem, appear, remain, stay, turn, prove, grown, emerge, continue, get, smell, taste, sound, look, feel, and be. This list is not comprehensive, but as you begin to understand the difference in usage you will be able to spot other verbs that are used as linking verbs. If you will familiarize yourself with the verbs in the preceding list, you will eliminate many mistakes and save time. ➛ Answer these questions. 1.16 What is the difference between a verb and a verb phrase?________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________________________________ 1.17 What tense of the verb is used in this sentence? “By ten o’clock tomorrow morning, we shall have reached Denver.” __________________________________________________________________________________ 1.18 Where does the s verb appear? ____________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________________________________ 1.19 What principal part does the progressive mood employ?__________________________________________ 1.20 What mood is used in this clause from Romans 6:8, “Now if we be dead with Christ…”? ____________________________________________________________________________________________________ 8 ➛ Give the principal parts of these verbs. Present Past Present Participle Past Participle 1.21 freeze a. _____________________ b. ____________________ c. ____________________ 1.22 tear a. _____________________ b. ____________________ c. ____________________ 1.23 ride a. _____________________ b. ____________________ c. ____________________ 1.24 write a. _____________________ b. ____________________ c. ____________________ ➛ Complete these activities. 1.25 List the twenty-three auxiliaries. a. ______________________________________________ m. ____________________________________________ b. ______________________________________________ n. ____________________________________________ c. ______________________________________________ o. ____________________________________________ d. ______________________________________________ p. ____________________________________________ e. ______________________________________________ q. ____________________________________________ f. ______________________________________________ r. ____________________________________________ g. ______________________________________________ s. ____________________________________________ h. ______________________________________________ t. ____________________________________________ i. ______________________________________________ u. ____________________________________________ j. ______________________________________________ v. ____________________________________________ k. ______________________________________________ w. ____________________________________________ l. ______________________________________________ 1.26 ➛ Conjugate the verb to eat in the indicative mood, active voice, present perfect tense. a. I ________________________________________ d. we _________________________________________ b. you __________________________________________ e. you ________________________________________ c. he/she _______________________________________ f. they _______________________________________ Fill in the correct past or past participle form. 1.27 Don (sit) in the place where Mr. Gray had (lay) his hat. a. _____________________ b. _____________________ 1.28 Mary (lie) down because her temperature a. _____________________ had (rise). b. _____________________ 1.29 Sally (lie) in the sun longer than she should have (lie) there. b. _____________________ a. _____________________ 9 ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS Adjectives and adverbs are modifiers. That is, they describe, qualify, limit, and make more specific or more clear, other words in a sentence. If a word modifies a noun or a pronoun, it is an adjective. If a word modifies a verb, an adjective, or another adverb, it is an adverb. The words a, an, and the are called articles; they are also adjectives. An article is sometimes called a determiner because it indicates that the word following it is a noun. Not all sentences have modifiers. No modifiers: Jesus wept. Adjective modifiers: Who can find a virtuous woman? Adverb modifiers: Now, many believers are hopefully, eagerly awaiting the return of the Lord Jesus Christ. When you add suffixes like -al, -ish, -rive, -ly, -like, and -ous to nouns they become adjectives. Nouns: man, cave, form, advantage, child, act, cage Adjectives: manly, cave-like, formal, advantageous, childish, active, cagey When you add -ly to adjectives, invariably they become adverbs. Adjectives: extensive, aggressive, defiant, slight, equal Adverbs: extensively, aggressively, defiantly, slightly, equally Adverbs tell how, when, where, and how much or to what degree. Adverbs with the -ly endings usually indicate the manner in which something is done: how or how much. Adverbs that tell when are words such as soon, now, later, and sometime. Adverbs that tell where are words such as there, here, somewhere, and anywhere. Although adjectives usually precede the nouns they modify, an adjective can be used after a linking verb as a subject complement. He is a delightful companion. (modifying companion) He is delightful. (subject complement) Adverbs frequently follow the verbs they modify. They usually precede the adjectives and adverbs they modify. Adverb: He drives carelessly. (modifying a verb) Adverb: Russia is a strongly fortified country. (modifying an adjective) Adverb: One can muse too contentedly. (modifying an adverb) Adjectives form the comparative degree by adding -er to shorter words and the superlative by adding -est. Longer adjectives and most adverbs form the comparative by the use of more or less and form the superlative by the use of most or least. The comparative form is used when comparing two things; and the superlative, when comparing more than two. Positive calm diplomatic many few little Positive violently soon COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES Comparative calmer more diplomatic more fewer littler COMPARISON OF ADVERBS Comparative more violently less violently sooner 10 Superlative calmest most diplomatic most fewest littlest Superlative most violently least violently soonest PREPOSITIONS Prepositions are function words that do not have inflections. They show the relationship between a noun or pronoun, the object of the preposition, and some other word in the sentence. A preposition must have an object. A prepositional phrase, which must have a preposition and an object, is almost always used as a modifier. It is either an adjective phrase modifying a noun or pronoun or an adverb phrase modifying a verb or an adjective. A prepositional phrase always begins with the preposition and ends with the object; it may have many modifiers in between. A prepositional phrase usually follows the word it modifies. Prepositional phrases used as adverbs usually modify the verb: “They that sow (in tears) shall reap (in joy).” (Psalm 126:5) Sometimes these adverb phrases modify adjectives: “The Lord is far (from the wicked) but near (to the righteous).” Seldom do adverb phrases modify adverbs. The English language has about one hundred twenty-five prepositions or groups of words that are used as prepositions. The following list contains some common prepositions. against about above across along as at around among amid after before behind between beside besides but below beneath by concerning down during except for from in into inside like near on over out onto of off since through throughout toward to until up unto upon under underneath with within without ➛ Fill in the correct modifier. 1.30 This book discusses religion (superficial, superficially). ______________________________________ 1.31 He felt (sentimental, sentimentally) about leaving New Orleans. ______________________________________ 1.32 Harry drives (reckless, recklessly). ______________________________________ 1.33 The contractor has a (reasonable, reasonably) secure future. ______________________________________ 1.34 The car was (special, specially) built for my dad. ______________________________________ ➛ Fill in the comparative and superlative forms. 1.35 beautiful a. _____________________________________ b. _____________________________________ 1.36 little a. _____________________________________ b. _____________________________________ 1.37 often a. _____________________________________ b. _____________________________________ 1.38 clearly a. _____________________________________ b. _____________________________________ ➛ Write adjective or adverb to indicate the usage of each prepositional phrase. 1.39 The couple (from Oregon) will arrive (in the morning). a. __________________________________________ b. __________________________________________ 1.40 Soft tires drag (on the road) and reduce the mileage (of the car). a. __________________________________________ b. __________________________________________ 11 CONJUNCTIONS The conjunction is a connector. One kind of conjunction is the coordinating conjunction—and, but, or, for, nor, yet, and sometimes so—which connects words, phrases, or clauses of equal value. Subordinating conjunctions—after, although, when, where, while, since, because, until, and many others—are used to connect subordinate clauses to main clauses. Coordination: “Come unto me all ye that labor and are heavy laden, and I will give you rest.” Subordination: “Seek the Lord while He may be found.” ➛ Rewrite these sentences using coordinating conjunctions. 1.41 I was hungry. I ate. ____________________________________________________________________________________________________ 1.42 I will go. I will stay. ____________________________________________________________________________________________________ 1.43 I would go with you. I am not ready. ____________________________________________________________________________________________________ 1.44 I am not sad. I am crying. ____________________________________________________________________________________________________ ➛ Subordinate the less important idea to the main idea by using the subordinating conjunctions. 1.45 I could not play baseball yesterday. I sprained my ankle. ____________________________________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________________________________ 1.46 It is raining this morning. We plan to picnic this afternoon. ____________________________________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________________________________ 1.47 I will cook breakfast. You sleep late. ____________________________________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________________________________ INTERJECTIONS The interjection is a word used to show sudden feeling. Any part of speech may be used as an interjection. Ouch! Oh! Stop! (verb) Great! (adjective) No! (adverb) Wait! (verb) But! (conjunction). An interjection does not have to be a word; it may be a sound: Ugh! Yow! Eek! Some words may be used as several different parts of speech. The dictionary will give all of the possible parts of speech any word may be. The main thing to remember is that the way the word is used makes the distinction. Decide how the word is used, and you will be able to tell what part of speech it is. 12 Preposition: He went up the street. Adjective: He used the up elevator. Adverb: Prices are going up. Noun: I have my ups and downs. Verb: The butcher upped the price of meat. Interjection: Up! Up! Please hold the elevator for me. Sentences Under Construction ADJECTIVE NOUN VERB VERB PREPOSITION ADJECTIVE ➛ 1.48 CONJUNCTION NOUN ADVERB PRONOUN NOUN VERB Write four sentences using the word taxi as four different parts of speech. Label each different usage. a. ________________________________________________________________________________________________ b. __________________________________________ 1.49 a. ________________________________________________________________________________________________ b. __________________________________________ 1.50 a. ________________________________________________________________________________________________ b. __________________________________________ 1.51 a. ________________________________________________________________________________________________ b. __________________________________________ Review the material in this section in preparation for the Self Test. The Self Test will check your mastery of this particular section. The items missed on this Self Test will indicate specific areas where restudy is needed for mastery. 13 SELF TEST 1 Answer true or false (each answer, 1 point). 1.01 ______________ A noun indicates the action in a sentence. 1.02 ______________ A pronoun is a noun substitute. 1.03 ______________ All adverbs end in -ly. 1.04 ______________ Adjectives modify nouns, pronouns, and other adjectives. 1.05 ______________ Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs. 1.06 ______________ Prepositional phrases are modifiers. 1.07 ______________ Any part of speech may be used as an interjection. 1.08 ______________ A coordinating conjunction introduces a subordinate clause. 1.09 ______________ Adjectives modify more kinds of words than adverbs. 1.010 ______________ Adding suffixes like -al, -ly, -ous to nouns usually makes adjectives. 1.011 ______________ Adverbs tell when, where, how, and what. 1.012 ______________ Adverbs ending in -ly indicate how or how much. 1.013 ______________ A prepositional phrase needs only two words. Match these items (each answer, 2 points). 1.014 ________ present tense a. action expected to happen 1.015 ________ past tense b. past action completed before another past action 1.016 ________ future tense 1.017 ________ present perfect tense e. action happened and completed in the past 1.018 ________ past perfect tense f. past action at any time 1.019 ________ future perfect tense g. action completed before an expected previous action c. action happening now, today d. action completed before a set time in the future Fill in the blanks (each answer, 3 points). 1.020 The principal parts of a regular verb are formed by ______________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________________________________ . 1.021 The past participle of the following verbs are: a. begin ________________________________________ c. choose ______________________________________ b. shake ________________________________________ d. do __________________________________________ 1.022 The principal part which never uses an auxiliary is ____________________________________________ . 1.023 In the active voice the ______________________________________ acts. 1.024 In the passive voice the subject __________________________________________________________________ . 1.025 The indicative mood is the mood of ______________________________________________________________ . 1.026 The subjunctive mood deals with a. ___________________________ or b. _____________________________ . 1.027 The problem with the verbs lie and lay primarily is that the a. __________________________________ of lie is the same as the b. __________________________________ of lay. 1.028 A transitive verb is one that requires a _____________________________ of the action. 1.029 The relative pronoun is used to introduce ______________________________________________________ . 1.030 The _____________________________________ pronoun asks questions. 14 1.031 To indicate an unknown person the ___________________________________ pronoun is used. 1 032 A pronominal adjective is a word that is both a a. ________________________________ and an b. ________________________________ . 1.033 The nominative case of the personal pronoun is used for a. ________________________________ and b. ________________________________ . 1.034 The object of a preposition has to be a a. _________________________ or b. _________________________ . 1.035 A a. _______________________ or b. ________________________ must be the object of the preposition. 1.036 A prepositional phrase may be called either an a. _____________________________ or an b. _____________________________ phrase. 1.037 An interjection is a word used to show _____________________________ action. 1.038 A conjunction is a _____________________________ of words phrases or clauses. 90 Score 112 Adult Check _______________ ___________________ Initial Date II. THE STRUCTURE OF SENTENCES A sentence contains at least one subject and one predicate with or without modifiers. Sentences may be simple, having one subject and verb; compound, having two or more main clauses; or complex, having a main clause and one or more subordinate clauses. In this section you will study these kinds of sentences and their uses. You will also study sentence patterns which provide variety in usage. Through the understanding of sentence structure you will be able to construct sentences more easily and correctly. SECTION OBJECTIVES Review these objectives. When you have completed this section, you should be able to: 3. Identify and use different kinds of sentences for variety of expression: 3.l 3.2 3.3 Identify and use a variety of sentence patterns. Use various types of sentences for special purposes. Combine simple, complex, and compound sentences for a pleasing effect. KINDS OF SENTENCES One method for classifying sentences is to label them by their function. Such a listing would include the declarative sentence, or statement; the imperative sentence, or command; the exclamatory sentence, or exclamation; and the interrogative sentence, or question. 15