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Grade 12
Unit 2
LANGUAGE ARTS 1202
THE STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE
CONTENTS
I.
PARTS OF SPEECH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Nouns and Noun Substitutes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Verbs and Verb Phrases. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Adjectives and Adverbs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Prepositions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Conjunctions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Interjections. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
II.
THE STRUCTURE OF SENTENCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Kinds of Sentences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Parts of the Sentence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
III. METHODS OF SUBORDINATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Prepositional Phrases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Verbal Phrases. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Dependent Clauses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
The Appositive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
The Nominative Absolute . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
Author:
Editor:
Illustrator:
Dorothy A. Galde, M.A.
Alan Christopherson, M.S.
Alpha Omega Graphics
804 N. 2nd Ave. E., Rock Rapids, IA 51246-1759
© MM by Alpha Omega Publications, Inc. All rights reserved.
LIFEPAC is a registered trademark of Alpha Omega Publications, Inc.
All trademarks and/or service marks referenced in this material are the property of their respective owners. Alpha Omega Publications, Inc.
makes no claim of ownership to any trademarks and/or service marks other than their own and their affiliates’, and makes no claim of affiliation
to any companies whose trademarks may be listed in this material, other than their own.
ii
THE STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE
Although many grammatical errors traditionally have been treated as unrelated problems, recently we
have begun looking at language as a whole. Sentence fragments, fused sentences, dangling modifiers, and
other similar errors actually result from one problem—grammatical structure. Total sentence meaning
includes both lexical, or definable, meaning and structural meaning. If grammatical structure is clear,
then the total meaning of a sentence should also be clear. Most sentence errors result from structural signals that are either ambiguous or inconsistent with lexical meaning.
Using the English language may be compared to driving an automobile: Many Americans know how
to use it, but they do not care to understand how it operates. However, if you do understand auto mechanics, you can operate your car more efficiently; and, if you understand language structure, you can communicate more effectively by being able to identify and avoid many grammatical errors.
In this LIFEPAC® you will review the parts of speech: nouns, pronouns (noun substitutes), verbs,
adjectives, adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions, and interjections. You will study the function of each of
these language units. You will also review sentence structure by studying the types of sentences through
the use of subordination. You will also study verb phrases, dependent clauses, appositives, and nominative
absolutes.
OBJECTIVES
Read these objectives. The objectives tell you what you will be able to do when you have successfully completed this LIFEPAC.
When you have completed this LIFEPAC, you should be able to:
1. Identify the parts of speech.
2. Determine the part of speech of a word by its function in a sentence.
3. Identify and use different kinds of sentences for variety of expression.
4. Identify, form, and use verbals knowledgeably.
5. Identify, form, and use the three types of dependent clauses.
6. Recognize and use the nominative absolute.
Survey the LIFEPAC. Ask yourself some questions about this study. Write your questions here.
________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________
I. PARTS OF SPEECH
The study of modern American English grammar may be approached in several ways. Traditionally,
grammar is prescriptive because it tries to prescribe what grammar should be.
The identification of parts of speech began with Aristotle. By the time of Christ, eight different parts
of speech had been classified. Only slight variations in these parts of speech have occurred during the long
history of the study of grammar.
Descriptive grammar, or structural linguistics, is a more modern approach. This approach, beginning
with spoken language forms, classifies words by their function within a given sentence. Descriptive grammar and traditional grammar may use similar classifications and terms.
1
Generative, or transformational, grammar is one of the newest approaches. Although generative grammar might be considered an outgrowth of descriptive grammar in some respects, a major difference lies in
the fact that it describes rules for all possible English sentences; traditional and descriptive grammar
describe those sentences that already exist.
A combination of these three approaches—the classification of grammatical structure as it should be,
the description of grammar as it is used, and the rules for forming all possible grammatical combinations—should bring a deeper understanding of language.
In this section you will study the parts of speech and their function in sentences. You will review nouns
and noun substitutes, verbs and verb phrases, modifiers, prepositions, conjunctions, and interjections. You
are probably familiar with all of these parts of speech, but the benefits of proper usage warrant the time
spent in review.
SECTION OBJECTIVES
Review these objectives. When you have completed this section, you should be able to:
1. Identify the parts of speech.
2. Determine the part of speech of a word by its function in a sentence.
NOUNS AND NOUN SUBSTITUTES
Without nouns we would have no sentences. Sentences must have nouns or noun substitutes to indicate the subject of a verb.
Nouns. Nouns are naming words such as car, horse, school Frank, Colorado River, safety, and love—words that we use primarily to stand for things, animals, places, people, and
ideas. The tangible objects are called concrete nouns. Thought processes, ideas, or other
intangible things, including hatred, sovereignty, and devotion are called abstract nouns.
Nouns normally have a separate form for the singular and for the plural. They also take
inflectional endings for showing ownership or possession.
Nominative:
Possessive:
Singular
car
school
girl’s
student’s
Plural
cars
schools
girls’
students’
Noun substitutes. Any word or group of words that substitutes for a noun is called
either a pronoun or a noun substitute. These substituting words function in the same way
a noun functions. Notice the noun substitutes in the following sentences.
Nobody is responsible.
The wise make plans for eternity.
All have sinned and come short of the glory of God.
Listening to the Lord is important.
How long he stays is still in doubt.
Each of the preceding italicized words or groups of words is used as the subject of the
sentence. Since a subject has to be a noun or pronoun, these subjects are either nouns or
noun substitutes.
2
Pronouns. Pronouns fall into six categories. Each category has a different function.
Category
Function
Examples
Relative
Introduces dependent
clauses
who, whom, whose, which, that
Interrogative
Asks questions
who? whom? whose? which? what?
Demonstrative
Points out
this, that, these, those
Reflexive
Reflects or intensifies
myself, yourself, himself, itself, ourselves,
yourselves, themselves
Indefinite
Indicates an unknown
Singular
one, anyone, someone, no one, none, everyone, anybody, somebody, nobody, everybody,
anything, something, nothing, everything,
much, either, neither, another
Plural
many, all, others, few, several, some, most
Personal
Takes the place of
proper nouns
Singular
Nominative
Case
1st person I
2nd person you
3rd person he
she
it
Objective
Case
me
you
him
her
it
Plural
1st person we
us
2nd person you
you
3rd person they
them
Possessive
Case
my, mine
your, yours
his
her
its
our, ours
your, yours
their, theirs
The nominative case is used for subject and subject complement. The objective case is
used for direct object, indirect object, object of the preposition. The possessive case forms—
my, your, his, her, its, our, your, and their—are used as adjectives. Since they are both pronouns and adjectives, they are called pronominal adjectives. The possessive forms—mine,
your, his, hers, its, ours, yours, and theirs—are used in place of nouns as subject(ive) complements. Notice that the possessive personal pronouns have no apostrophes because a
special word has been constructed indicating possession.
➛
List the nouns and pronouns in the following passage; then answer the questions.
“Teach me, O Lord the way of thy statutes; and I shall keep it unto the end. Give me understanding and I shall keep thy law; yea, I shall observe it with my whole heart.”
1.1
Nouns:
a. ______________________________________________
e. ____________________________________________
b. ______________________________________________
f. ____________________________________________
c. ______________________________________________
g. ____________________________________________
d. ______________________________________________
1.2
Pronouns:
a. ______________________________________________
f. ____________________________________________
b. ______________________________________________
g. ____________________________________________
c. ______________________________________________
h. ____________________________________________
d. ______________________________________________
i. ____________________________________________
e. ______________________________________________
j. ____________________________________________
3
1.3
What kind of pronouns are used in the passage? ____________________________________________
1.4
How many of these pronouns are in the nominative case? ________________________________________
1.5
How many of these pronouns are in the objective case? ______________________________________
1.6
How many of these pronouns are in the possessive case? ____________________________________
➛
List the nouns and pronouns in the following passage.
“If thine enemy be hungry, give him bread to eat, and if he be thirsty, give him water to drink;
for thou shalt heap coals of fire upon his head, and the Lord shall reward thee.”
1.7
Nouns:
a. ______________________________________________
e. ____________________________________________
b. ______________________________________________
f. ____________________________________________
c. ______________________________________________
g. ____________________________________________
d. ______________________________________________
1.8
Pronouns:
a. ______________________________________________
e. ____________________________________________
b. ______________________________________________
f. ____________________________________________
c. ______________________________________________
g. ____________________________________________
d. ______________________________________________
➛
List the pronouns in the preceding passage by case.
1.9
Nominative: a._______________________
b._______________________
1.10
Objective:
b._______________________ c._______________________
1.11
Possessive: a._______________________
➛
Complete these activities.
1.12
Name ten indefinite pronouns:
a._______________________
b._______________________
a. ______________________________________________
f. ____________________________________________
b. ______________________________________________
g. ____________________________________________
c. ______________________________________________ h. ____________________________________________
1.13
d. ______________________________________________
i. ____________________________________________
e. ______________________________________________
j. ____________________________________________
What two lists of pronouns are almost the same?
a. ______________________________________________
1.14
b. ____________________________________________
What is the use of the reflexive pronoun? __________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________________
1.15
Name three positions in the sentence used by the personal pronoun, objective case.
a. ______________________________ , b. ______________________________ , c. ______________________________
4
VERBS AND VERB PHRASES
A sentence must express a complete thought; it needs a noun or pronoun subject. The
word or group of words that tells what the subject is or what it does is called the verb.
Characteristics of verbs. Verbs are words that by their inflections (endings) show
time or tense.
The six tenses in the English language are these:
Present tense — action happening now, this minute, today
Past tense — action that happened and was completed in the past
Future tense — action that is expected to happen up ahead
Present perfect tense — past action at any time before now
Past perfect tense — past action completed before another past action
Future perfect tense (seldom used) — action completed before a set time in the
future
Verbs are classified as regular or irregular by the way they form their principal parts.
Regular verbs form their past and past participle by adding -d, -ed, or -t to the present form.
Present
burn (burns)
talk
believe
Past
burned or burnt
talked
believed
Present Participle
burning
talking
believing
Past Participle
burned or burnt
talked
believed
Irregular verbs have no pattern or set inflections for forming their past and past participles. Be is the most irregular form in the language and has eight forms: be, am, is, are,
was, were, being, been.
Present
Past
Present
Participle
Past
Participle
begin
began
beginning
begun
choose
chose
choosing
chosen
do
did
doing
done
eat
ate
eating
eaten
freeze
froze
freezing
frozen
get
got
getting
gotten
go
went
going
gone
have
had
having
had
know
knew
knowing
known
lose
lost
losing
lost
ride
rode
riding
ridden
shake
shook
shaking
shaken
teach
taught
teaching
taught
tear
tore
tearing
torn
write
wrote
writing
written
The present form is used with will and shall to form the future tenses. The past form
never has an auxiliary. The present participle adds -ing to the present and always requires
a being auxiliary to be used as the predicate verb. The past participle always uses have,
has, or had to form the present and past perfect tenses and a being verb to form the passive voice. These four forms are called the principal parts of a verb because all forms of a
verb are made from them.
5
When it is used to provide the action or state of being of a sentence, the verb is called the simple predicate. The predicate may be one word or a group of words that is called a verb phrase. To
know what words in the sentence are part of the verb phrase, one must know the auxiliaries.
Some of the twenty-three auxiliaries are verbs in their own right and can be used alone as predicates. The first fourteen fall into this group: am, are, is, was, were, be, been, being (the verb to be),
have, has, had (the verb to have), do, does, did (the verb to do). The other auxiliaries can be used
only as auxiliaries and are called modals. The root verb may not be expressed but it must be
implied. Modals are can, could, shall, should, will, would, may, might, must.
Johnny ate his lunch. (One-word verb)
Dorothy should certainly have been found by now. (Verb phrase)
Notice that should, have, and been are in your list of auxiliaries. Certainly is not in the list.
Other words can be dropped into the middle of a verb phrase, but that does not make them verbs.
The word found in that sentence is called the root verb; it is the past participle of the verb to find.
You should learn not only how to recognize verbs but also how to use appropriate verb forms
in your speech and in your writing.
The conjugation of a verb is the schematic arrangement of the inflectional forms of a verb.
Active voice means that the subject is doing the acting; passive voice means that the subject is
receiving the action of the verb.
Conjugation of the verb to choose in active and passive voice
Indicative Mood
Active Voice
Passive Voice
Present Tense
Singular
Plural
Singular
Plural
I choose
you choose
he chooses
we choose
you choose
they choose
I am chosen
you are chosen
he is chosen
we are chosen
you are chosen
they are chosen
we chose
you chose
they chose
I was chosen
you were chosen
he was chosen
we were chosen
you were chosen
they were chosen
we shall choose
you will choose
they will choose
I shall be chosen
you will be chosen
he will be chosen
we shall be chosen
you will be chosen
he will be chosen
we have chosen
you have chosen
they have chosen
I have been chosen
you have been chosen
he has been chosen
we have been chosen
you have been chosen
they have been chosen
we had chosen
you had chosen
they had chosen
I had been chosen
you had been chosen
he had been
chosen
we had been chosen
you had been chosen
they had been
chosen
Past Tense
I chose
you chose
he chose
Future Tense
I shall choose
you will choose
he will choose
Present Perfect Tense
I have chosen
you have chosen
he has chosen
Past Perfect Tense
I had chosen
you had chosen
he had chosen
6
Future Perfect Tense
I shall have
chosen
you will have
chosen
he will have
chosen
we shall have
chosen
you will have
chosen
they will have
chosen
I shall have been
chosen
you will have been
chosen
he will have been
chosen
we shall have been
chosen
you will have been
chosen
they will have been
chosen
In the indicative mood, the mood expressing fact or truth, present tense, third person,
singular, every verb in the English language ends in s. It is called the s verb. Try conjugating any verb in the present tense and notice this phenomenon: I go, you go, he goes; I study,
you study, he studies; I build, you build, she builds; I swim, you swim, she swims. All the
third person singular verbs end in s. The failure to comply with this idiosyncrasy by a
speaker or a writer results in substandard usage, which is often viewed as ignorance.
One other form of the verb is the progressive form: I am seeing, you are seeing, she is
seeing, we are seeing, you are seeing, they are seeing in the present tense. In the passive voice
this conjugation would be I am being seen and so on. All verbs cannot be expressed in the
passive voice. Most verbs can be stated in the progressive form.
The subjunctive mood deals with desire, wish, or conditions that do not exist: I wish I
were more creative, but I am not.
Difficult verbs. Three sets of verbs seem to cause problems in usage for some speakers and writers. They are lie and lay, sit and set, rise and raise. To understand these verbs
better, you need to know that some verbs indicate action that must be received; these verbs
are called transitive verbs. Others verbs do not indicate action because they are not action
verbs or because they do not require a receiver. These verbs are called intransitive, not
transitive. The dictionary indicates v.t. for verb transitive or v.i. for verb intransitive.
Look at the principal parts of these six problem verbs.
Infinitive Form
Present
Past
Present
Participle
Past
Participle
v.i.
to lie
lie(s)
lay
lying
lain
v.t.
to lay
lay(s)
laid
laying
laid
v.i.
to sit
sit(s)
sat
sitting
sat
v.t.
to set
set(s)
set
setting
set
v.i.
to rise
rise(s)
rose
rising
risen
v.t.
to raise
raise(s)
raised
raising
raised
The problem with lie and lay results from the fact that the past of lie is lay, which is
the present of lay.
Today I lie in bed; yesterday I lay there; I have lain in bed a week.
Today I lay the book down. (Notice the receiver of the action is book.)
Yesterday I laid the book down.
I have laid every book in place.
7
The thing to remember is that you always lay something down, you always set something down, and you always raise something. However, after you lay something down, it lies
there.
Action or linking verbs. Of all the verbs in the language, only a handful can be used
as linking verbs. Most verbs show action of some kind—mental, spiritual, emotional, or
actual overt action. Some action verbs require a receiver of action.
Transitive active: Doris rode the chairlift.
Other action verbs may not require a receiver.
Intransitive complete: Doris scowled.
If an action verb is in the passive voice, thus indicating that the subject receives the
action, it is called transitive passive: George was elected to office. If a linking verb is used,
the sentence is called intransitive linking: Mary is a good student.
The most common linking verb is the verb to be with all its forms. This means that
whenever any form of the verb to be is the root verb, an intransitive linking construction is
present. Think of the auxiliaries that could be used with be: could have been, should have
been, might have been, must have been, may be, can be. Other common linking verbs are
become, seem, appear, remain, stay, turn, prove, grown, emerge, continue, get, smell, taste,
sound, look, feel, and be.
This list is not comprehensive, but as you begin to understand the difference in usage
you will be able to spot other verbs that are used as linking verbs. If you will familiarize
yourself with the verbs in the preceding list, you will eliminate many mistakes and save
time.
➛
Answer these questions.
1.16
What is the difference between a verb and a verb phrase?________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________________
1.17
What tense of the verb is used in this sentence? “By ten o’clock tomorrow morning, we shall have
reached Denver.” __________________________________________________________________________________
1.18
Where does the s verb appear? ____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________________
1.19
What principal part does the progressive mood employ?__________________________________________
1.20
What mood is used in this clause from Romans 6:8, “Now if we be dead with Christ…”?
____________________________________________________________________________________________________
8
➛
Give the principal parts of these verbs.
Present
Past
Present Participle
Past Participle
1.21
freeze
a. _____________________
b. ____________________
c. ____________________
1.22
tear
a. _____________________
b. ____________________
c. ____________________
1.23
ride
a. _____________________
b. ____________________
c. ____________________
1.24
write
a. _____________________
b. ____________________
c. ____________________
➛
Complete these activities.
1.25
List the twenty-three auxiliaries.
a. ______________________________________________ m. ____________________________________________
b. ______________________________________________
n. ____________________________________________
c. ______________________________________________
o. ____________________________________________
d. ______________________________________________
p. ____________________________________________
e. ______________________________________________
q. ____________________________________________
f. ______________________________________________
r. ____________________________________________
g. ______________________________________________
s. ____________________________________________
h. ______________________________________________
t. ____________________________________________
i. ______________________________________________
u. ____________________________________________
j. ______________________________________________
v. ____________________________________________
k. ______________________________________________
w. ____________________________________________
l. ______________________________________________
1.26
➛
Conjugate the verb to eat in the indicative mood, active voice, present perfect tense.
a. I ________________________________________
d. we _________________________________________
b. you __________________________________________
e. you ________________________________________
c. he/she _______________________________________
f. they _______________________________________
Fill in the correct past or past participle form.
1.27
Don (sit) in the place where Mr. Gray
had (lay) his hat.
a. _____________________
b. _____________________
1.28
Mary (lie) down because her temperature a. _____________________
had (rise).
b. _____________________
1.29
Sally (lie) in the sun longer than she
should have (lie) there.
b. _____________________
a. _____________________
9
ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS
Adjectives and adverbs are modifiers. That is, they describe, qualify, limit, and make
more specific or more clear, other words in a sentence. If a word modifies a noun or a pronoun, it is an adjective. If a word modifies a verb, an adjective, or another adverb, it is an
adverb. The words a, an, and the are called articles; they are also adjectives. An article is
sometimes called a determiner because it indicates that the word following it is a noun. Not
all sentences have modifiers.
No modifiers: Jesus wept.
Adjective modifiers: Who can find a virtuous woman?
Adverb modifiers: Now, many believers are hopefully, eagerly awaiting the
return of the Lord Jesus Christ.
When you add suffixes like -al, -ish, -rive, -ly, -like, and -ous to nouns they become adjectives.
Nouns: man, cave, form, advantage, child, act, cage
Adjectives: manly, cave-like, formal, advantageous, childish, active, cagey
When you add -ly to adjectives, invariably they become adverbs.
Adjectives: extensive, aggressive, defiant, slight, equal
Adverbs: extensively, aggressively, defiantly, slightly, equally
Adverbs tell how, when, where, and how much or to what degree. Adverbs with the -ly
endings usually indicate the manner in which something is done: how or how much.
Adverbs that tell when are words such as soon, now, later, and sometime. Adverbs that tell
where are words such as there, here, somewhere, and anywhere.
Although adjectives usually precede the nouns they modify, an adjective can be used
after a linking verb as a subject complement.
He is a delightful companion. (modifying companion)
He is delightful. (subject complement)
Adverbs frequently follow the verbs they modify. They usually precede the adjectives
and adverbs they modify.
Adverb: He drives carelessly. (modifying a verb)
Adverb: Russia is a strongly fortified country. (modifying an adjective)
Adverb: One can muse too contentedly. (modifying an adverb)
Adjectives form the comparative degree by adding -er to shorter words and the superlative by adding -est. Longer adjectives and most adverbs form the comparative by the use of
more or less and form the superlative by the use of most or least. The comparative form is
used when comparing two things; and the superlative, when comparing more than two.
Positive
calm
diplomatic
many
few
little
Positive
violently
soon
COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES
Comparative
calmer
more diplomatic
more
fewer
littler
COMPARISON OF ADVERBS
Comparative
more violently
less violently
sooner
10
Superlative
calmest
most diplomatic
most
fewest
littlest
Superlative
most violently
least violently
soonest
PREPOSITIONS
Prepositions are function words that do not have inflections. They show the relationship between a noun or pronoun, the object of the preposition, and some other word in the
sentence. A preposition must have an object. A prepositional phrase, which must have a
preposition and an object, is almost always used as a modifier. It is either an adjective
phrase modifying a noun or pronoun or an adverb phrase modifying a verb or an adjective.
A prepositional phrase always begins with the preposition and ends with the object; it
may have many modifiers in between. A prepositional phrase usually follows the word it
modifies.
Prepositional phrases used as adverbs usually modify the verb: “They that sow (in
tears) shall reap (in joy).” (Psalm 126:5)
Sometimes these adverb phrases modify adjectives: “The Lord is far (from the wicked)
but near (to the righteous).” Seldom do adverb phrases modify adverbs.
The English language has about one hundred twenty-five prepositions or groups of
words that are used as prepositions. The following list contains some common prepositions.
against
about
above
across
along
as
at
around
among
amid
after
before
behind
between
beside
besides
but
below
beneath
by
concerning
down
during
except
for
from
in
into
inside
like
near
on
over
out
onto
of
off
since
through
throughout
toward
to
until
up
unto
upon
under
underneath
with
within
without
➛
Fill in the correct modifier.
1.30
This book discusses religion (superficial, superficially).
______________________________________
1.31
He felt (sentimental, sentimentally) about leaving
New Orleans.
______________________________________
1.32
Harry drives (reckless, recklessly).
______________________________________
1.33
The contractor has a (reasonable, reasonably)
secure future.
______________________________________
1.34
The car was (special, specially) built for my dad.
______________________________________
➛
Fill in the comparative and superlative forms.
1.35
beautiful
a. _____________________________________
b. _____________________________________
1.36
little
a. _____________________________________
b. _____________________________________
1.37
often
a. _____________________________________
b. _____________________________________
1.38
clearly
a. _____________________________________
b. _____________________________________
➛
Write adjective or adverb to indicate the usage of each prepositional phrase.
1.39
The couple (from Oregon) will arrive (in the morning).
a. __________________________________________
b. __________________________________________
1.40
Soft tires drag (on the road) and reduce the mileage (of the car).
a. __________________________________________
b. __________________________________________
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CONJUNCTIONS
The conjunction is a connector. One kind of conjunction is the coordinating conjunction—and, but, or, for, nor, yet, and sometimes so—which connects words, phrases, or clauses of equal value. Subordinating conjunctions—after, although, when, where, while, since,
because, until, and many others—are used to connect subordinate clauses to main clauses.
Coordination: “Come unto me all ye that labor and are heavy laden, and I will
give you rest.”
Subordination: “Seek the Lord while He may be found.”
➛
Rewrite these sentences using coordinating conjunctions.
1.41
I was hungry. I ate.
____________________________________________________________________________________________________
1.42
I will go. I will stay.
____________________________________________________________________________________________________
1.43
I would go with you. I am not ready.
____________________________________________________________________________________________________
1.44
I am not sad. I am crying.
____________________________________________________________________________________________________
➛
Subordinate the less important idea to the main idea by using the subordinating conjunctions.
1.45
I could not play baseball yesterday. I sprained my ankle.
____________________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________________
1.46
It is raining this morning. We plan to picnic this afternoon.
____________________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________________
1.47
I will cook breakfast. You sleep late.
____________________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________________
INTERJECTIONS
The interjection is a word used to show sudden feeling. Any part of speech may be used
as an interjection. Ouch! Oh! Stop! (verb) Great! (adjective) No! (adverb) Wait! (verb) But!
(conjunction). An interjection does not have to be a word; it may be a sound: Ugh! Yow! Eek!
Some words may be used as several different parts of speech. The dictionary will give
all of the possible parts of speech any word may be. The main thing to remember is that the
way the word is used makes the distinction. Decide how the word is used, and you will be
able to tell what part of speech it is.
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Preposition:
He went up the street.
Adjective:
He used the up elevator.
Adverb:
Prices are going up.
Noun:
I have my ups and downs.
Verb:
The butcher upped the price of meat.
Interjection:
Up! Up! Please hold the elevator for me.
Sentences Under Construction
ADJECTIVE
NOUN
VERB
VERB
PREPOSITION
ADJECTIVE
➛
1.48
CONJUNCTION
NOUN
ADVERB
PRONOUN
NOUN
VERB
Write four sentences using the word taxi as four different parts of speech. Label each different usage.
a. ________________________________________________________________________________________________
b. __________________________________________
1.49
a. ________________________________________________________________________________________________
b. __________________________________________
1.50
a. ________________________________________________________________________________________________
b. __________________________________________
1.51
a. ________________________________________________________________________________________________
b. __________________________________________
Review the material in this section in preparation for the Self Test. The Self Test will check
your mastery of this particular section. The items missed on this Self Test will indicate specific
areas where restudy is needed for mastery.
13
SELF TEST 1
Answer true or false (each answer, 1 point).
1.01
______________ A noun indicates the action in a sentence.
1.02
______________ A pronoun is a noun substitute.
1.03
______________ All adverbs end in -ly.
1.04
______________ Adjectives modify nouns, pronouns, and other adjectives.
1.05
______________ Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs.
1.06
______________ Prepositional phrases are modifiers.
1.07
______________ Any part of speech may be used as an interjection.
1.08
______________ A coordinating conjunction introduces a subordinate clause.
1.09
______________ Adjectives modify more kinds of words than adverbs.
1.010 ______________ Adding suffixes like -al, -ly, -ous to nouns usually makes adjectives.
1.011 ______________ Adverbs tell when, where, how, and what.
1.012 ______________ Adverbs ending in -ly indicate how or how much.
1.013 ______________ A prepositional phrase needs only two words.
Match these items (each answer, 2 points).
1.014
________
present tense
a. action expected to happen
1.015
________
past tense
b. past action completed before another past action
1.016
________
future tense
1.017
________
present perfect tense
e. action happened and completed in the past
1.018
________
past perfect tense
f. past action at any time
1.019
________
future perfect tense
g. action completed before an expected previous action
c. action happening now, today
d. action completed before a set time in the future
Fill in the blanks (each answer, 3 points).
1.020 The principal parts of a regular verb are formed by ______________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________________ .
1.021 The past participle of the following verbs are:
a. begin ________________________________________
c. choose ______________________________________
b. shake ________________________________________
d. do __________________________________________
1.022 The principal part which never uses an auxiliary is ____________________________________________ .
1.023 In the active voice the ______________________________________ acts.
1.024 In the passive voice the subject __________________________________________________________________ .
1.025 The indicative mood is the mood of ______________________________________________________________ .
1.026 The subjunctive mood deals with a. ___________________________ or b. _____________________________ .
1.027 The problem with the verbs lie and lay primarily is that the a. __________________________________
of lie is the same as the b. __________________________________ of lay.
1.028 A transitive verb is one that requires a _____________________________ of the action.
1.029 The relative pronoun is used to introduce ______________________________________________________ .
1.030 The _____________________________________ pronoun asks questions.
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1.031
To indicate an unknown person the ___________________________________ pronoun is used.
1 032
A pronominal adjective is a word that is both a a. ________________________________ and an
b. ________________________________ .
1.033
The nominative case of the personal pronoun is used for a. ________________________________ and
b. ________________________________ .
1.034
The object of a preposition has to be a a. _________________________ or b. _________________________ .
1.035
A a. _______________________ or b. ________________________ must be the object of the preposition.
1.036
A prepositional phrase may be called either an a. _____________________________ or an
b. _____________________________ phrase.
1.037
An interjection is a word used to show _____________________________ action.
1.038
A conjunction is a _____________________________ of words phrases or clauses.
90
Score
112
Adult Check
_______________
___________________
Initial
Date
II. THE STRUCTURE OF SENTENCES
A sentence contains at least one subject and one predicate with or without modifiers. Sentences may
be simple, having one subject and verb; compound, having two or more main clauses; or complex, having
a main clause and one or more subordinate clauses.
In this section you will study these kinds of sentences and their uses. You will also study sentence patterns which provide variety in usage. Through the understanding of sentence structure you will be able to
construct sentences more easily and correctly.
SECTION OBJECTIVES
Review these objectives. When you have completed this section, you should be able to:
3. Identify and use different kinds of sentences for variety of expression:
3.l
3.2
3.3
Identify and use a variety of sentence patterns.
Use various types of sentences for special purposes.
Combine simple, complex, and compound sentences for a pleasing effect.
KINDS OF SENTENCES
One method for classifying sentences is to label them by their function. Such a listing
would include the declarative sentence, or statement; the imperative sentence, or command;
the exclamatory sentence, or exclamation; and the interrogative sentence, or question.
15