Download multi-stoRe model (msm)

CHAPteR 1: cognitive psychology – MeMory
multi-stoRe model (msm)
Positive
Focal study
encoding in STM and
Baddeley (1966) examined
ts either: acoustically
LTM by giving 75 par ticipan
‘taut’), acoustically dissimilar
similar words (e.g. ‘caught’
antically similar words
words (e.g. ‘foul’ ‘deep’), sem
ically dissimilar words (e.g.
(e.g. ‘big’ ‘huge’) or semant
ustically dissimilar words
‘pen’ ‘ring’). With STM, aco
than acoustically similar
were better recalled (80%)
ustic encoding to be
words (10%), indicating aco
similar words (71%) were
dominant. Semantically dis
n semantically similar ones
recalled slightly better tha
antic coding does occur
(64%), suggesting that sem
.
in STM, but is not dominant
lowed the same proceWith LTM, par ticipants fol
te gap between presentadure, but with a 20-minu
no perceivable difference
tion and recall. There was
ilar and dissimilar words,
between acoustically sim
similar words (85%) were
but more semantically dis
similar ones (55%),
recalled than semantically
ding is dominant in LTM.
suggesting semantic enco
s
al studie literature
n
io
it
d
d
A
w ed
●
56) revie
ity
Miller (19 e that the capac ,
d
ms
lu
to conc s five to nine ite
a
w
of STM
hunking
ed h o w c
ping
but show ase this by grou
re
could inc into meaningful
n
ory
informatio established mem
g
in
s
u
units
9)
stores.
rson (195
on & Pete e trigrams to
rs
e
t
e
P
●
nonsens
n got
read out
XPJ), the m a
.
.g
(e
ts
o
n
participa unt backwards fr d
an
co
3
o
t
n
e
m
e
e
h
w
t
om bet
fr
it
a
ig
c
d
nt re ll.
large
to preve recalled
s
d
n
o
c
e
18 s
were
trigrams
5%
90% of
but only
,
s
d
n
o
c
e
s
t
ges ing
after 3
nds, sug
o
c
e
s
18
between
after
uration is
d
M
T
S
t
tha
ds.
0 secon
18 and 2
2
GGP AQA A AS Ch01.indd 2-3
●
Description
The MSM explains how data move between three
permanent storage systems, each system differing
in terms of:
1. Capacity – how much data is stored
2. Duration – how long data are stored
3. Encoding – the form in which data are stored.
Sensory memory (SM) is a limited-capacity,
short-duration store containing unprocessed
impressions of sensory data. Attended information goes for further processing in short-term
memory (STM), with non-attended information
not processed or immediately forgotten. SM has
separate stores for sensory inputs – for example,
iconic store for visual and echoic store for
auditory information. STM is an active, temporary
d the
estimate l
)
3
7
9
(1
Anonkhin possible neurona
f
number o s in the brain at
n
io
t
c
e
n
con
million
d by 10.5 ts. As
e
w
o
ll
fo
1
h
s of noug where near
kilometre
y
n
a
e
s
u
hat
can
ggests t
nobody
u
s
tial, it
n
e
t
o
.
p
s
s
this
mitle
acity is li
LTM cap
d that
75) foun left school
9
(1
k
c
ri
had
● Bah
nts who
participa 15 years recalled
t
f
in the las es and names o ile
c
h
fa
f
,
o
s
hoto w
90%
s from p
e
t
a
rs
a
lm
e
o
y
o
48
sch
o had left
those wh recalled 80% of
ly
his
previous 70% of faces. T
d
n
is
a
n
s
name
duratio
hat LTM
implies t
g
-lastin .
very long
memory system, holding information in
use. The dominant encoding type in STM
is acoustic, with other sensory codes also
used. Capacity is limited to five to nine items,
extended by chunking, where the size of the units
of information is increased. Duration is limited to
around 30 seconds; though rehearsal retains data
within the STM loop, until eventually becoming
more permanent within long-term memory (LTM).
The dominant encoding type in LTM is semantic,
though other encoding types also occur, such as
visual and acoustic. Potential capacity is assumed
to be unlimited, with duration possibly lifelong.
Unlike STM, information in LTM does not have
to be continually rehearsed to be retained, with
forgetting occurring mainly not due to loss of
data, but to retrieval failures.
Sensory
SENSORY
MEMORY
STORE
Attention
Information
SHORTTERM
MEMORY
STORE
e
valuatio
✔ The M
n
SM insp
ired inte
later the
r
e
st
or
studies ies like the wo and research,
leading
rking m
indicate
em
to
th
STM or
LTM abil at brain dama ory model. Ca
ities, wh
ge can
se
and LTM
affect e
ich
being s
ither
eparate supports the
✔ Murd
id
memor
ea of ST
ock (196
y
M
s
2
to
)
fo
res.
of a list
that are und that word
s
rehears
effect) a
ed and at the beginnin
re well
th
g
recalled
the list,
, as are us in LTM (prim
which a
w
a
r
e
c
o
further
supports still in STM (re rds at the end y
cency e
of
the idea
stores.
ffec
of sepa
rate STM t). This
and LTM
Negative evaluation
✘ The MSM is oversimpli
fied as seeing STM and
LTM as single stores. Re
search suggests several
types of STM, such as sep
arate stores for verbal
and non-verbal sounds
and different types of
LTM, such as procedural
, episodic and semantic
.
✘ Cohen (1990) thinks
memory capacity is not
measurable necessarily
by the amount of information, but by the natur
e of the information to
be recalled. MSM does
not consider this.
✘ Research indicates tha
t rehearsal is not the
only factor in the transf
er of material from
STM to LTM, contradict
ing MSM.
✘ MSM focuses too mu
ch on memory structur
e
rather than processes.
Transfer
Retrieval
LONGTERM
MEMORY
STORE
Rehearsal
▲ Figure 1.1 The multi-store model
pp.262–4
3
30/01/2012 13:37
CHAPteR 1: cognitive psychology – MeMory
woRking memoRy model (wmm)
Positive
Focal study
,
d the existence of the EB
Alkhalifa (2009) examine
n
atio
with numerical inform
by presenting 48 students
uential fashion (e.g. 1,
on a screen, either in seq
n, where information
2, 3, 4) or in parallel fashio
par ts of the screen
was presented in different
were used of sufficient
simultaneously. Numbers
capacities of both the PL
complexity to override the
were set problem-solving
and the VSS. Par ticipants
mbers presented. Those
questions based on the nu
or,
ted material were superi
using sequentially presen
n
atio
itation exists on inform
which suggests that a lim
to learning, as parallel
passing from perception
to learning. As sequential
processing was a hindrance
ty
it indicates that the capaci
processing was superior,
ty
aci
t determined by the cap
of WM is larger than tha
plying the existence of
of the PL and the VSS, im
ich acts as a temporar y
a limited-capacity EB, wh
d material.
‘general store’ of integrate
s
al studie
Addition al. (1995)
●
o et
cans,
D’Esposit
g fMRI s ortex
in
s
u
found,
al c
pre-front verbal
that the
n
e
h
a t ed w
was activ rbal tasks were
e
ut
and non-v simultaneously, b ly,
d
e
ra
a
rm
sep te
perfo
erformed rain area
p
n
e
h
w
not
eb
g that th
suggestin ed with the CE.
iat
is assoc
5) found
et al. (197 of words
y
le
e
d
d
sts
● Ba
PL that li pronounce
with the
o
t
r
e
g
lon
lists
that took called as well as
re
s
t
rd
o
n
o
w
were
er of
me numb ickly, which
of the sa
qu
re
o
ed m
of
pronounc hat the capacity t
t
n
o
ts
s
m
the a u
sugge
mited by
li
.
m
is
e
L
h
P
t
the
say
takes to
of time it
4
GGP AQA A AS Ch01.indd 4-5
●
Description
Replacing the single STM of the MSM, the WMM
proposes a four-component working memory
based on the form of processing each carries
out. The limited capacity central executive (CE)
acts as a filter, dealing with sensory information
of all types, and determines what information
is attended to and allocates this information to
‘slave systems’, temporary stores dealing with
different types of sensory information.
The phonological loop (PL) is a slave system
dealing with auditory information. It is similar
to the rehearsal system of the MSM, with a
limited capacity determined by the amount of
information spoken in about 2 seconds. It divides
into the phonological store (PS), which stores
) found
es (1999 T scans
id
n
o
J
&
Smith
ks PE
visual tas
in’s
that with tivation in the bra
c
io
a
ivat n
s h o w ed
, but act
re
e
h
p
is
m
re with
left he
hemisphe porting
t
h
g
ri
e
in th
n, sup
IS
formatio
spatial in the VC and the
of
a
e
.
id
s
e
ie
h
t
ntit
parate e
being se
is
w found
eley & Le
knew
● Badd
icipants
that part ense words were d
un
ns
which no s (words that so
e
n
t
o
n
h
p
re
o
fe
hom
e dif
, but hav
their
the same ven when using
e
)
s
ic
g
h
,w h
meanin
rent task parate
fe
if
d
a
r
PL fo
is se
the PAS
suggests .
PL
from the
e
valuatio
✔ The id
n
ea that
any one
be invo
s
lave sys
lve
tem, lik
memor d in performin
e the PL
y, menta
g
, ca
l arithm many differen
reading
t tasks, n
e
, is a va
ti
lik
luable in c, verbal reas
✔ The W
oning a e
sight.
MM is m
n
d
or
demon
strates e plausible tha
S
n
TM in te
and acti
rms of te the MSM, as it
ve proc
essing.
mporar
✔ Unlik
y storag
e the
e
the imp MSM, the WM
ortance
M does
of rehea
n
✔ The W
words heard, and the articulatory process
rsal for ot overempha
MM sug
sise
S
T
M reten
ges
for child
(AP), which permits sub-vocal repetition of
tion.
ren with ts practical ap
plic
le
problem
information stored in the PL. The primary
s of imp arning difficult ations, especia
ies asso
airmen
lly
acoustic store (PAS) was a later addition,
ts in wo
c
rking m iated with
which stores recently heard speech and sound.
emory.
Another slave system is the visuo-spatial sketchpad (VSS), a temporary store for visual and spatial
items and the relationships between them. It
divides into the visual cache (VC), which stores
visual material concerning form and colour, and
the inner scribe (IS), which stores information
Negative evaluation
about spatial relationships.
✘ WMM only deals wit
A third slave system is the episodic buffer (EB),
h STM and therefore is
not a
which integrates information from the CE, PL,
comprehensive model of
memory.
VSS and LTM.
✘ The WMM does not exp
lain changes in processin
g
ability occurring as the
result of practice or tim
e.
✘ It is not clear ho w the
CE operates, this vaguen
ess
being used to explain all
findings. If two tasks
cannot be performed sim
ultaneously, it is conclud
ed
that the processing comp
onents are conflicting or
that the tasks exceed CE
capacity. If two tasks ca
n
be performed simultaneo
usly, it is concluded tha
t
they do not exceed avail
able resources.
✘ Much research into
the WMM is laboratory-b
ased
and therefore lacking in
mundane realism.
Visuo-spatial
sketchpad
Central
executive
Articulatory
loop
Rehearsal
Primary
acoustic
store
▲ Figure 1.2 The working memory model
pp.266–8
5
30/01/2012 13:37
eyewitness testimony ● misleAding
infoRmAtion
Focal study
lieved EWTs were
Loftus & Palmer (1974) be
g questions. Forty-five
unreliable due to misleadin
of car accidents and were
par ticipants watched films
s going when they _____
asked ‘how fast were the car
ed/
g verb was one of smash
into each other’. The missin
bs
ted. More severe ver
bumped/collided/hit/contac
her speed estimates.
hig
like ‘smashed’ resulted in
.h. were: ‘smashed’ 40.5,
The mean estimates in m.p
.1, ‘hit’ 34.0, ‘contacted’
‘collided’ 39.3, ‘bumped’ 38
nt, 150 students watched
31.8. In a second experime
.
no broken glass occurring
a film of a car crash with
ling
vel
tra
s
w fast were the car
One-third were asked ‘ho
h other’; for another third
eac
when they smashed into
h ‘hit’; and for the final
‘smashed’ was replaced wit
r,
was required. A week late
third no estimate of speed
ss,
gla
ken
dition recalled bro
32% in the ‘smashed’ con
‘hit’ condition and 12% in
compared to 14% in the
combined findings show
the control condition. The
ation in the verb used to
that the misleading inform
way information was
describe speed affected the
that memories were
represented in memory so
new information, resulting
reconstr ucted, including the
in false memories.
●
studies und
l
a
n
io
it
d
Ad
003) fo
●
6
Pickrell (2 visitors to
Loftus &
childhood
yland
that more given fake Disne
,
d
n
n
Bun y
Disneyla
ring Bugs and with
u
t
a
fe
s
advert
cter)
ney chara
he
(not a Dis Bugs Bunny in t unny
B
rd
a
s
a cardbo ed meeting Bug
ll
a
d
c
a
re
room,
e who re
racters
d to thos
compare h no cartoon cha re
it
gu
adverts w the cardboard fi
t
u
o
and with is suggests that
Th
es
present. information creat
g
in
d
a
misle
ories.
nd
false mem
985) fou
alpass (1 tion were
M
&
m
a
h
ntifica
● Brig
rs in ide
esses
that erro appen when witn
h
o
likelier t
racially
at
ects are
and susp hich suggests th
w
EWT.
,
f
t
n
o
y
re
diffe
accurac
t
c
e
ff
a
race can
GGP AQA A AS Ch01.indd 6-7
Description
Eyewitness testimony (EWT)
EWT concerns the accuracy of memories from
eyewitnesses. In 75% of cases where DNA shows
wrongful convictions, original judgment occurred
through inaccurate EWT. Bartlett (1932) explained
how memories are not accurate ‘snapshots’
of events, but reconstructions influenced by
schemas, ready-made expectations based on
previous experiences, moods, existing knowledge,
contexts, attitudes and stereotypes. Therefore
eyewitnesses do not passively recall events as
they happen, but reconstruct memories biased by
active schemas at time of recall. In court, some
barristers are accused of ‘leading witnesses’,
posing questions that affect schemas and suggest
certain answers, not necessarily accurate ones.
(1983)
& Bowers ents leading
v
Bekerian
e
slides of nding that
s h o w ed
fi
ar crash,
up to a c ’ memories were
nts
participa by misleading
hat
d
e
t
c
ggests t
unaffe
which su
,
ts
s
c
n
e
ff
io
t
a
s
tion
que
t informa
than
n
r
e
e
v
h
t
-e
t
ra
s
po
mories
e
m
f
o
l
a
retriev
rage.
%
their sto
d that 17
75) foun
9
(1
a
s
f
u
o
ft
o
lm
fi
● L
ses to a
rn,
of witnes featuring no ba ek
y
e
we
rn
a
u
d
jo
car
n aske
going
one whe
r
d
a
e
c
ll
a
e
c
h
re
was t
t
s
?’
fa
w
a
o
b
hite rn
later ‘h
ed t h e w f p o s t s
s
a
p
it
when
tion o
g the no
EWT.
supportin ation affecting
rm
fo
event in
CHAPteR 1: cognitive psychology – MeMory
Positive
e
valuatio
✔ Mem
n
ory for im
portant
mislead
a
spects o
in
fe
amoun g information,
t of atte
only un vents is not ea
ntion all
importa
sily disto
✔ Rese
ocated
n
arch into
to differ t aspects, pos rted by
E
W
are con
ent asp
sibly du
T sugge
du
ects.
e to the
sts prac
tical ap
unadvis cted and how
plicatio
able via
witness
ns in th
es
uncorro
✔ Loftu
ew
borated are interview
s’s work
ed. Guil ays court case
E
WT alon
has inc
researc
ty verdic
s
reas
e.
h to ide
ts are n
ntify im ed understand
ow
portant
in
g of th
factors
involved e area and sti
m
in EWT,
like age ulated
Misleading information
and an
xiety.
Research shows that EWT is affected by
experiences occurring after witnessed events,
a prime factor being the use of misleading
information, especially from misleading
questions. These take two forms:
Negative evaluation
(1) leading questions – questions
✘ It is unclear with misle
increasing the chances that people’s
ading information wheth
er errors
schemas influence them to recall
in recall occur due to de
mand characteristics or
actual
incorrect answers; and (2) post-event
changes in the memory
of events.
information – misleading information
✘ Laboratory studies are
artificial. Foster et al. (19
added to questions after incidents
94) sho wed
that EWT was more ac
cu
rate for real-life crime
occur, negatively affecting later recall.
s than
simulated ones, probably
because the consequen
ces of
inaccurate recall are gre
ater with real-life incide
nts and
participants are more em
otionally involved.
✘ Home Office advice
to juries about EWT is ba
sed on
judicial intuition (comm
on-sense analysis) rathe
r than any
systematic review of res
earch evidence, which
sug
gests that
errors and therefore wr
ongful convictions may
sti
ll
occur.
✘ Inaccurate recall in
experiments is expected,
as participants
do not expect to be misle
d.
▲ Figure 1.3
pp.322–8
7
30/01/2012 13:37
CHAPteR 1: cognitive psychology – MeMory
effeCts of Anxiety on memoRy
Positive
▼ Figure 1.4 The inverted-U hypothesis
Focal study
studies hat
l
a
n
io
it
d
Ad
) found t
●
8
al. (1987 more on a
Loftus et
ed
g
nts focus
participa erson was carryin
p
a
weapon
, which
heir face
of
than on t hat facial details
t
e
b
ts
s
t
e
o
g
n
ld
sug
inals wou e idea that
m
ri
c
d
e
h
t
arm
g
supportin tion from
n
recalled,
e
t
t
a
s
rt
.
ive
anxiety d etails of incidents
d
t
n
a
n
rt
u
o
imp
7) fo d
mpt (200 derate
a
rk
e
V
&
t
with mo
● Gine
icipants
that part alled more details
c
on
anxiety re accident viewed
l,
ic
u
ff
w aro sa
of a tra
e with lo d arousal
s
o
h
t
n
a
h
film t
crease
g that in
e
suggestin all, in line with th h
ug
rec
o
h
ts
lt
fi
a
e
,
n
is
e
b
othes
p
y
.
h
-U
s
d
s
asse ed
inverte
was not
l
a
s
u
ro
a
high
GGP AQA A AS Ch01.indd 8-9
●
Moderate anxietyy
produces optimal
al
performance
Very
good
Description
Anxiety is associated with witnessing real-life
crimes/incidents, as they often have a high emotional impact and can draw attention away from
the important aspects of a situation. Some research
suggests that anxiety can lessen an individual’s
field of vision, meaning that some possibly important aspects are not encoded into memory, while
other research implies that arousal can actually
improve the accuracy and detail of recall.
Deffenbacher (1983) used the inverted-U hypothesis to explain this, by arguing that moderate
levels of emotional arousal improve recall up to an
optimal point of arousal, after which any additional
increases in emotional arousal lead to a gradual
decrease in recall quality. Such data plotted on a
graph forms an inverted (upside-down) ‘U’ shape.
at
found th
l. (2001)
a
t
e
m
o
e
u
fr
O
us
nts anxio
ive
participa motionally negat
e
ils
g
a
t
in
e
h
d
c
er
wat
alled few a scene
c
re
ts
n
e
f
o
ev
periphery icipants
rt
from the
a
p
s
u
io
x
ral
-an
ally neut
n
than non
io
t
o
m
e
d
that
e
who view porting the idea
w.
p
u
f
s
eld o vie
events,
es the fi
c
u
d
re
y
anxiet
nd that
002) fou on-stressful
(2
r
le
h
e
ed n
● Ko
ones,
nts recall
participa er than stressful
tt
of
words be Freud’s concept
g
in
&
rt
y
o
le
p
Had
sup
n, though
repressio 06) found better ey
0
th
McKay (2 ressful words, as hat
t
t
s
g
f
in
o
t
ll
s
reca
ugge
orable, s ly in some
m
e
m
re
we
on
n occurs
repressio
.
instances
EWT
estigated the effects
Yuille & Cutshall (1986) inv
armed robbery where a
of arousal on recall of an
y, but was shot six times
thief stole guns and mone
e the shop and died, the
by the shopkeeper outsid
sly wounded too. The
shopkeeper being seriou
s
witnesses, and five month
police interviewed all 21
se,
erviewed 13 of the
later the researchers re-int
rs. Two misleading
yea
aged between 15 and 32
g
by the researchers durin
questions were inserted
lice
po
ss accounts to the
the re-interview. Eyewitne
d. Accuracy of recall
lyse
and researchers were ana
among the most aroused
was ver y high, especially
ading questions had no
par ticipants, and the misle
adict laborator y studies,
effect. These results contr
s did create inaccurate
where misleading question
suggest that heightened
recall; indeed the results
accurate memory, though
arousal is associated with
o closer to the crime
the most stressed were als
st view.
and therefore had the be
Very
poor
Low
Anxiety Level
High
Freud offers an alternative explanation by the
means of repression, where anxiety hampers
the recall of traumatic events, because such
memories are hidden (repressed) in the unconscious mind in order to protect individuals
from their emotionally distressing nature. Such
memories are accessible by psychotherapy, where
therapists help individuals by various techniques
to recover such ‘hidden’ memories, but have led
to accusations of false memory syndrome, where
incorrect memories occur due to being ‘suggested’
to individuals by their therapists. Such retrieval of
memories is currently banned.
▲ Figure 1.5
e
valuatio
✔ Rese
n
arch su
ch as Yu
investig
il
le & Cu
ated wit
tshall (1
ne
can be
986), w
regarde sses to real-li
ho
fe incid
d
based s
as supe
e
n
ts
tudies,
r
,
io
r to lab
as
heighte
ned em they involve th oratoryo
e
ti
therefor
e have ons, such as a element of
m
n
xiety, an
ore eco
✔ Supp
logical
d
ort for Y
v
a
u
lidity.
ille
Christia
nson & & Cutshall’s fin
dings c
Hubine
the reca
ame
tte (1
ll o
that imp f witnesses to 993), who stud from
ied
bank ro
roveme
nts in re
b
with inc
call wer beries, finding
reased
e assoc
arousal,
that anx
iated
wh
ie
attentio ty-creating situ ich again sugg
n from im
ations d
e
o not div sts
portant
ert
details
of an ev
ent.
Negative evaluation
✘ In 2004 Deffenbache
r reviewed his results,
finding them oversimpli
stic. From a metaanalysis of 63 studies he
found that EWT
performance increased
gradually as arousal
rose, in line with the inv
erted-U hypothesis,
but with very high levels
of anxiety, recall did
not decline gradually, bu
t decreased with a
catastrophic drop in ac
curacy.
✘ Laboratory studies of
anxiety and recall
accuracy are inferior as
there is not the
personal emotional involv
ement found with
real-life incidents, and
witnesses may be more
aware of the importanc
e of memorising details
fully and accurately for
later recall in possible
legal proceedings.
pp.322–6
9
30/01/2012 13:38
CHAPteR 1: cognitive psychology – MeMory
effeCts of Age on memoRy
Positive
Focal study
) tested age differences in
Coxon & Valentine (1997
information. 52 children,
susceptibility to misleading
erly people with a mean
53 young adults and 42 eld
a video of a kidnapping
age of 70 years watched
ions, which for half the
and then answered quest
contained four misleading
par ticipants in each group
per
‘Which arm did the kidnap
questions – for instance,
g
un
Yo
.
there was no watch
have her watch on?’ when
in
y
erl
ldren and the eld
adults were superior to chi
by how many questions
red
accuracy of recall, measu
le
erly proved less suggestib
they got right, but the eld
It
lts.
n the young adu
to misleading questions tha
ldren and the elderly
chi
ng
was concluded that you
refore make less reliable
are less accurate and the
t the recall of different
eyewitnesses, but also tha
different, with elderly
age groups is qualitatively
s, but having more reliable
people remembering les
against the idea of the
memories. This also goes
to misleading information.
elderly being more prone
●
s
al studie
AdditionThomson (2007) fouenlider
●
lik
Memon & -year-old adults
m
0
8
s
face fro
60- to
correct
d
in
re
e
a
s
p
o
m
o
o
h
to c
otos c
h
p
f
o
n
h
a selectio 2-year-olds, whic al
3
tu
to 18- to t reduced percep
a
h
s
t
a
s
,
implie
l acuity
and
and visua
abilities
in storing WT.
s
ie
lt
u
c
fi
if
t
affec E
well as d
rmation,
fo
in
g
in
und
retriev
(2008) fo ive
le
o
h
T
&
ffect
mond
● Ham
ke less e es
a
m
n
re
d
that chil
ir memori
re
s, as the
witnesse icient and they a
ff
e
a
s
s
s
e
li
le
imp
are
y to
ulate. This
less artic h children’s abilit
it
h
w
ic
h
problem te memories, w
are
a
y
e
ic
h
n
t
u
comm
r how
fo
s
n
io
t
ca
has impli .
ed
n
io
t
s
e
u
q
10
GGP AQA A AS Ch01.indd 10-11
Description
Research indicates that memory ability declines
with age, but this is not a unanimous view;
indeed research findings from all age groups are
not consistent, possibly due to methodological
faults, and several factors have been identified
that moderate the effect of age on accuracy
of recall. Children also make less accurate
witnesses, again with several factors involved.
Older people tend to have less accurate and less
detailed recall of events than young people and
the middle-aged, and tend to be more prone to
being misled by leading information. There is
e
valuatio
✔ Rese
n
arch su
ggests
way ch
p
r
a
ctical ap
ild
plicatio
especia eyewitnesses
ns in th
ar
lly vulne
e
rable to e questioned,
mislead
as
ina
in
in place g questions. Th ccuracies in re they are
c
ere are
in courts
special all due to
terms o
procedu
f the wa of law and wit
h
re
ys in wh
✔ Rese
ich child police interview s
arch ha
r
s
e
s
n
in
also
are que
stereoty
stioned
pes abo helped to red
.
uce age
ut mem
differen
also a reported tendency for the elderly to
-ba
ory
ce
all age s in memory a , with individua sed
make false identifications and to have poorer
groups,
bility be
l
ing
es
recognit
recall of specific details. Children are likelier
ion that pecially the eld recognised in
erly, an
there a
recall b
to accept false information supplied by
re
d
etween
age gro qualitative dif also the
memor
adults, because of a fear of contradicting
ference
ups, rath
y ability
s in
er than
differen
adults, but generally have more accurate
ces.
just ove
rall
and detailed recall when they identify an event as
serious. Research also suggests that the accuracy
of children’s recall is very dependent on how they
are questioned. Younger children seem especially
at risk of being misled by leading questions and
post-event information, and this has serious
implications for how children are interviewed by
Negative evaluatio
police officers and in courts of law.
n
✘ It is unclear why age
differences exist. The
superior performance of
young adults may be
due to being more motiv
ated and more used to
tests, while poor physica
l health may explain wh
y
some elderly people ha
ve poor memory ability.
✘ Many studies use sam
ples of elderly people fro
m
care homes who have red
uced memory ability
anyway and therefore
do not form representat
ive
samples.
✘ One methodological
consideration is that co
llege
students are often comp
ared with the elderly,
but on tests and stimuli
more suited to college
students, which may ne
gatively affect results.
) found
mb (1999 children
a
L
&
rt
e
Rob
with
terviews cusations
that in in
ac
g
in
mak
who were vestigators
, in
of abuse ted or distorted
re
e
rp
e
t
in
but thes d
mis
reports,
ge
’s
n
n
e
ll
re
a
d
h
il
c
h
c
ent un
w
s
hat
ie
c
ts
ra
gges t
inaccu
which su
,
for
n
s
re
ie
d
il
c
h
by c
accura
in
t
p
e
c
c
a
s.
children
ting adult
ontradic
c
f
o
r
a
t
fe
und he
l. (1991) fo e false
a
t
e
s
u
mak
● Loft
calling
kelier to
elderly li
orer at re rly
o
p
,
s
n
io
t
a
ld
that e e g
identific
ails and
t
e
din
d
ic
if
by mislea
spec
affected
h
ic
re
h
e
w
w
,
n
n
me
rmatio
fo
ll
in
t
n
re
e
y of ca
post-ev
t accurac at there
a
h
t
ts
s
sugge
and th
with age
declines d vulnerability to
se
is increa information.
g
in
mislead
▲ Figure 1.6 How reliable are the eyewitness
testimonies of elderly people?
p.324
11
30/01/2012 13:38
CHAPteR 1: cognitive psychology – MeMory
tHe Cognitive inteRview (Ci)
Positive
Focal study
wed a police training
Geiselman et al. (1985) sho
h par ticipants interviewed
film of a violent crime, wit
r the standard interview
48 hours later using eithe
the standard interview
technique, or hypnosis and
The amount of false
technique, or the new CI.
all three techniques was
information produced by
interview produced
the same, but the standard
information and the CI
of
the least overall amount
.2 items compared to
the most, an average of 41
riment then introduced
29.4 items. A second expe
ring the interview – for
misleading information du
h the green backpack
instance, ‘Was the guy wit
.) Par ticipants tested with
ner vous? ’ (It wasn’t green
be misled. These results
the CI were least likely to
be a superior form of
strongly suggest the CI to
standard technique in the
police interview than the
ial recalled and the lower
amount of accurate mater
n recalled in response to
amount of false informatio
misleading information.
Addition
●
s
al studie 93)
t (19
& Dennet
arBekerian 7 studies, comp
2
h
it
d
w
e
I
he C
review
ects of t finding
ff
e
e
h
t
ing
es,
techniqu
n
standard er in all cases. O
t
t
e
b
the CI
0% more
around 3 tely reaverage
ra
c
n is ac u
n
informatio false informatio
e
ith
h
w
t
,
g
d
e
in
ll
rt
a
c
suppo
,
n
r
o
m
e
m
p
o
a su rio
less c
CI being
e
h
t
f
o
idea
e.
techniqu
7)
isher (199
elman & F I works best
● Geis
t the C
e
found tha within a short tim
a
d
e
n
s
a
u
th
n
r
e
e
h
w
e rath
m
ri
c
ng
a
s
g
e
sugg ti
followin
erwards,
ft
a
.
e
e
m
g
ti
a
long
its us
itations in
some lim
12
GGP AQA A AS Ch01.indd 12-13
●
Description
The cognitive interview replaced the standard
police interview, which depended on free
recall of events, and is an interview procedure
facilitating accurate, detailed recall, based on
Tulving’s (1974) idea that several retrieval paths
to memory exist and if one path is not accessible,
another one may well be. The CI also makes
use of Tulving & Thomson’s encoding specificity
theory (1973), which suggests the use of as many
retrieval cues as possible to improve recall.
The CI has four components:
1. Change of narrative order – where events are
recalled in different chronological orders – for
example, from end to beginning.
2. Change of perspective – where events are
recalled from different perspectives – for example,
from the offender’s point of view.
3. Mental reinstatement of context – which
makes use of environmental context – for
example, weather and emotional context
(feelings) of the crime scene.
4. Report everything – where all information
is recalled, even that which seems trivial or
muddled.
Fisher et al. (1987) produced the enhanced
cognitive interview (ECI) to overcome
problems caused by inappropriate sequencing
of questions. Extra features include
(a) minimisation of distraction; (b) reduction of
anxiety; (c) getting witnesses to speak slowly;
(d) asking open-ended questions.
) found
ull (2002
Milne & B everything’ and
rt
the ‘repo instatement’
re
t
x
e
t
to be
n
o
‘c
f the CI
o
ts
n
e
n
gaining
compo
niques in , which
h
c
e
t
y
e
the k
recall
nts
, detailed
accurate t some compone
a
h
e
t
iv
implies
re effect
I are mo
of the C
ers.
that
than oth
01) found in
0
(2
y
P
t&
sulted
● Gine
the CI re
usage of t increase in the
an
l
a signific ccurate materia
fa
o
t
s
n
e
u
s
o
s
m
a
itne
by eyew le increase
recalled
b
ra
a
p
m
o
c
dwithout a er of errors pro
be
mb
u
o
n
t
I
e
h
C
t
in
g the
in
t
s
e
g
g
u
u c ed , s
.
effective
▲ Figure 1.7
e
valuatio
✔ Fishe
n
r & Geis
elman (1
the CI u
9
8
8)
sin
‘good’ a g information have continued
gained
nd ‘poo
to deve
fr
r’ interv
lop
open-e
iewers. om watching
nded q
This ha
uestion
questio
s le
sa
ning to
the witn nd fitting the o d to more
increas
rder of
ess’s or
ing acc
der of e
uracy o
✔ Harr
x
f
p
r
erie
e
call from
ower
40% to nce,
is espec (1998) maintain
60%.
ia
s
witness lly beneficial in that the CI pro
es, parti
cedure
the inte
cula
rvie
abuse is
involved rly when phys wing of child
be train
ical and
. Howe
ve
ed
/o
compete in assessing th r, such intervie r sexual
wers m
nce of e
e linguis
ust
intervie
ach chil
tic and
w acco
d interv
cognitiv
r
ie
d
e
in
trained
we
gly, illus
intervie
trating th e and adapt th
wers.
e
e need
for skille
d,
Negative evaluation
✘ Although an effectiv
e technique, the CI is pro
ne
to false positives, where
incorrect information is
recalled.
✘ The CI can be time-c
onsuming, often taking lon
ger
than police officers have
operational time for.
✘ The CI comprises sev
eral techniques and, as
different police forces
use different versions,
comparisons are difficu
lt.
✘ The CI is only recom
mended for witnesses ag
ed
8 years and above, as yo
unger witnesses produce
less accurate informati
on than with other
interview techniques.
✘ ‘The change of persp
ective’ component can
mislead witnesses into spe
culating, so is less
frequently used.
pp.326–7
13
30/01/2012 13:39
stRAtegies foR memoRy imPRovement
CHAPteR 1: cognitive psychology – MeMory
Positive
Focal study
died internal retrieval cue
Liljequist et al. (1977) stu
zepam. Twenty student
effects using the drug dia
en placebos or 10mg of
volunteers were either giv
to complete a symbol
diazepam. Par ticipants had
red association learning
arrangement task and a pai
o before learning and
task. Group 1 took a placeb
ing day; Group 2 took
before recall on the follow
but diazepam before
a placebo before learning,
am before learning,
recall; Group 3 took diazep
ing day; while Group 4
but a placebo the follow
rning and before recall.
took diazepam before lea
generally good recall was
The results showed that
cebo par ticipants and
evident in the placebo–pla
th the placebo–diazepam
poor recall evident in bo
nditions. However, recall
and diazepam–placebo co
condition, although not
in the diazepam–diazepam
cebo condition, was
as good as the placebo–pla
le
refore suggest that peop
fair ly good. The results the
al
ern
int
en in the same
recall information best wh
they encoded the
en
wh
physiological state as
material.
s
al studie
Addition (1940) used familiar/
●
y
Aberneth tors and teaching
tu
r
ia
il
articipants
unfam
nd that p rs in
fi
to
s
m
roo
tuto
y familiar etter recall,
tested b
b
d
a
h
oms
ieval
familiar ro that external retr
g
r
n
ti
fo
s
y
e
ateg
sugg
useful str
a
re
a
s
t.
cue
provemen
memory im
5) found
7
9
t al. (1
e
by
y
le
e
d
affected
● Bad
king was ct, which
n
u
h
c
t
a
e
th
s
length eff
the word he length of word
t
s
r
rn
e
t
e
conc
ith bet
u n k ed , w
being ch ort rather than
sh
recall of
uggests
s. This s re more
rd
o
long w
ks a
ller chun
ll.
that sma
ting reca
it
in facil a
e
iv
t
c
e
eff
14
GGP AQA A AS Ch01.indd 14-15
●
Description
There are several techniques to improve recall.
Retrieval cues act as triggers to prompt memories
and occur as two types:
1. External (context-dependent) cues where
being in the same physical environment as where
material was encoded facilitates recall.
2. Internal (state-dependent) cues where being
in the same internal physiological state as when
encoding material facilitates recall.
Chunking involves increasing the capacity of
STM by grouping individual bits of information
into larger ‘chunks’ by giving them a collective
meaning to make them comprehensible. For
example, reading involves chunking letters into
words and words into sentences.
) found
gl (1992
e
li
K
&
s
ould use
Balte
adults sh they
r
e
ld
o
t
tha
, as
d
nemonics
verbal m rd to produce an
a
ry
h
a
s
it
s
ece
found
images n onics.
l
a
u
is
v
ll
reca
mnem
y
l imagery
for visua sts that the abilit
e
g
This sug
ypes of
’s
ifferent t
over one
to use d
changes
s
ic
n
o
m
mne
lifespan.
hat
) found t
is (1985
ores
c
s
ll
● Morr
a
s rec
n
y
fa
ll
a
b
t
foo
ns as the
an non-fa example, by
h
t
r
e
t
t
e
b
r
them – fo
t ed
process scores to expec
g
n
t
ri
a
a
h
p
t
com
ests
his sugg
scores. T essing is a
c
active pro egy for memory
t
ra
t
s
l
usefu
nt.
e
m
e
v
ro
imp
e
valuatio
✔ Chun
n
king is e
ffective
to learn
fo
r studen
and rec
ts, as th
all vast
✔ Prac
ey p
amoun
tical use
ts
of inform eriodically hav
is made
by ensu
e
ation.
o
f
internal
rin
and exte
circums g that revision
ta
rn
an
learned nces as similar d examinatio al retrieval cue
ns take
s
.
as poss
pla
ible to w
✔ Visua
hen ma ce in
l image
terial w
ry m
and rec
as
alling a nemonics are
c
m
tual obje
and ide
ost effe
c
as.
cts rath
er than tive in learning
✔ Activ
abstrac
e proce
t conce
ssing
A third method is mnemonics, where
as a pro
pts
cess, no is a dynamic th
recall is facilitated by organising
eory, pe
t a set o
provide
s mean
rceiving
f passiv
ing
es
material, such as imposing a structure
m
cognitiv
e areas ful links betwe tores. It therefo emory
.
en mem
on material to be recalled. Visual
re
ory and
other
imagery mnemonics focus on visual
images, like the rooms of a house, with items to
be recalled placed in the rooms and visualised.
Verbal mnemonics focuses on words, usually by
using acronyms where information to be recalled
is formed from the first letters of other words –
for example, ‘Every Good Boy Deserves Fun’
Negative evaluation
forms EGBDF, which are musical notes.
✘ Much research suppo
rting retrieval cues is lab
Finally, active processing refers to procedures
oratorybased and unlike every
where learners go beyond passive, unthinking
day memory. For examp
le,
performing procedural
encoding of information, instead subjecting
memory tasks, like riding
a bike,
is unaffected by retrieva
material to deep, meaningful processing.
l cues.
✘ Small chunks with few
er amounts of items are
recalled
better than large chun
ks with greater amounts
of items,
suggesting some limitatio
ns to chunking.
✘ The ability to use vis
ual imagery mnemonics
depends
on ho w much individuals
are ‘high imagers’ or ‘lo
w
imagers’, suggesting tha
t it is not effective for
everyone.
✘ Active processing is
a circular concept that
is
untestable and unscien
tific. Strongly processed
material
is recalled better, but be
tter recalled material mu
st also
have been actively proce
ssed.
▲ Figure 1.8 A list of letters presented as recognisable
‘chunks’ is easier to recall than a mere list of letters
p.263
15
30/01/2012 13:39