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A Differential Association-Reinforcement Theory of Criminal Behavior Author(s): Robert L. Burgess and Ronald L. Akers Source: Social Problems, Vol. 14, No. 2 (Autumn, 1966), pp. 128-147 Published by: University of California Press on behalf of the Society for the Study of Social Problems Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/798612 . Accessed: 29/09/2013 15:16 Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of the Terms & Conditions of Use, available at . http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp . JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide range of content in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and facilitate new forms of scholarship. For more information about JSTOR, please contact [email protected]. . University of California Press and Society for the Study of Social Problems are collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve and extend access to Social Problems. http://www.jstor.org This content downloaded from 129.93.16.3 on Sun, 29 Sep 2013 15:16:04 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 128 SOCIAL PROBLEMS or unexpected. Theybecome dence on the factorsthat may insurprising moremeaningful wheninterpreted in fluencetheprocessof decisionmaking thelightof studiesof therelationship bythehospitalpreadmission But staff. withvariousstaffmembers betweensocial class and psychiatricdiscussions treatment and hospitalization. of this suggestthatan understanding It was notpossiblewithinthescope processis crucialwhenaccounting for evi- thedifferential of thisstudyto gathersystematic speedofhospitalization. A DIFFERENTIAL ASSOCIATION-REINFORCEMENT THEORY OF CRIMINAL BEHAVIOR ROBERT L. BURGESS AND RONALD L. AKERS University of Washington pirical test or thoroughrestatement own revisionin that beyondSutherland's In spiteof thebodyof literature aroundthedifferential1947. Recognizingthatthe theoryis has accumulated a learningtheory,Sutherassociationtheoryof criminalbehav- essentially it to stateexplicitly landrephrased that crucial emreceive to it has yet ior,1 criminal behavioris learnedas anybe1 By 1960, Cressey had collected a 70- havioris learned.In Cressey's two reitem bibliographyon the theory; see Ed- visionsof thetextbook, thetheory has win H. Sutherlandand Donald R. Cressey, been deliberately leftunchangedfrom of ed., Chicago: Principles Criminology,6th revision. Thus,thetheory J. B. LippincottCo., 1960, p. vi. He has Sutherland's presentedan exhaustivereview of the mis- as it standsnow is postulatedupon taken notions, criticisms, attempted re- theknowledge of thelearningprocess formulations,and empirical tests of the extant20-25 years ago.2 literain a of sizable contained body theory neverwas able Sutherland, himself, ture. Donald R. Cressey, "Epidemiology and Individual Conduct: A Case from to testdirectly or findspecificempiriCriminology,"PacificSociological Review, 3 cal supportforhis theory, buthe was (Fall, 1960), pp. 47-58. For more recent convincedthat the theory two-edged literature see Donald R. Cressey, "The association genetic,differential Theory of DifferentialAssociation: An In- -(1) differential social troduction,"Social Problems, 8 (Summer, and (2) structural, INTRODUCTION 1960), pp. 2-5. James F. Short,Jr., "DifferentialAssociationas a Hypothesis:Problems of Empirical Testing," Social Problems, 8 (Summer,1960), pp. 14-25. Henry D. McKay, "DifferentialAssociation and CrimePrevention:Problemsof Utilization," Social Problems,8 (Summer,1960), pp. 2537. Albert J. Reiss, Jr., and A. Lewis Rhodes, "An EmpiricalTest of Differential Association Theory," The Journal of Research in Crimeand Delinquency,1 (January,1964), pp. 5-18. Harwin L. Voss, "DifferentialAssociation and Reported Delinquent Behavior: A Replication," Social Problems, 12 (Summer, 1964), pp. 78-85. Siri Naess, "ComparingTheories of Criminogenesis," The Journal of Research in Crimeand Delinquency,1 (July,1964), pp. 171-180. C. R. Jeffery, "Criminal Behavior and Learning Theory," The Journal of CriminalLaw, Criminologyand Police Science, 56 (September,1965), pp. 294-300. 2 The originalformalstatementappeared in Edwin H. Sutherland, Principles of Criminology,3rd ed., Philadelphia: J. B. LippincottCo., 1939, pp. 4-8. The terms, systematic"and "consistency"along with some statementsreferringto social disorganizationand culture conflictwere deleted in the revised theory.Two sentences stating that criminal behavior is learned were added and the terms "learned" and "learning"were includedin othersentences. The modalities of duration,priority,and intensitywere added. The revisedtheoryis in Sutherland and Cressey, op. cit., pp. 77-79. For Cressey's discussion of why he left the theoryin its 1947 form see ibid., p. vi. This content downloaded from 129.93.16.3 on Sun, 29 Sep 2013 15:16:04 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions CriminalBehavior 129 fortheknown organization-accounted Suggestedtheoreticalmodifications data on the full rangeof crimes,in- have not been lacking,but the diffiis that cluding conventionalviolationsand cultywith these restatements white-collar crimes.3The theoryhas theyare no morereadilyoperationalOne recent receivedsomeotherempirical support,4 ized than Sutherland's.6 but negativecases have also been paper,however, byDeFleurand Quinfound.5The attemptsto subjectthe ney,7 offersnew promise that the testare markedby theorycan be adequatelyoperationaltheoryto empirical inconsistent findingsboth withinthe ized. They have presenteda detailed same studyand betweenstudies,as strategy formakingspecific deductions well as by highlycircumscribed and for empiricaltesting.But while they theproblemsin thederqualified findingsand conclusions. haveclarified Whethertheparticular con- ivation and generationof testable researcher cludesthathis findings do or do not hypothesesfrom differential associaseemto supportthe theory, validanearlyall tion,theystillsee its empirical haveindicated in operational- tion as a verydifficult, difficulty thoughnot that impossibletask. and recommend izingtheconcepts the theorybe modifiedin sucha way Regardlessof the particularcritithatit becomesmoreamenableto em- cisms,the exceptionstaken,and the piricaltesting. difficulties involvedin testingand rethetheory thathavebeen 3 Ibid., pp. 77-80. Edwin H. Sutherland, formulating White Collar Crime, New York: Holt, offered,few take exceptionto the Rinehartand Winston, 1961, pp. 234-256 centrallearningassumptions in differ(originallypublished 1949). See also Cres- ential association.If we accept the sey's Foreword,"ibid., p. x. basic assumption thatcriminalbehav4 John C. Ball, "Delinquent and NonDelinquent Attitudes Toward the Preva- ior is learnedby the same processes as lence of Stealing,"The Journalof Criminal and involvesthe same mechanisms and Police Science, 48 conforming thenwe needto Law, Crimnonology behavior, (September-October, 1957), pp. 259-274. and makeuse of thecurrent James F. Short, "DifferentialAssociation recognize and Delinquency,"Social Problems,4, (Jan- knowledgeabout theseprocessesand Neitherthe extantstateuary, 1957), pp. 233-239. Short, "Differ- mechanisms. ential Associationwith Delinquent Friends mentof thetheory northereformulaand Delinquent Behavior," Pacific Sociolo- tionsof it make thenatureof explicit gical Review, 1 (Spring, 1958), pp. 20-25. the underlying learning process inShort, "DifferentialAssociation as a Hyassociation.In pothesis," op. cit. Voss, op. cit. Donald R. volved in differential of the short,no major revisionshave been Cressey,"Applicationand Verification DifferentialAssociationTheory,"The Jour- made utilizing establishedlearning nal of Criminal Law, Criminology and Police Science, 43 (May-June,1952), pp. principles. 47-50. Cressey,OtherPeople's Money,GlenThat this typeof revisionof the coe, Ill.: The Free Press,1953, pp. 147-149. theoryis neededhas been recognized Glaser, op. cit., pp. 7-10. and somecriticism of differential asso5 Marshall Clinard, The Black Market, New York: RinehartCo., 1952, pp. 285329. Marshall Clinard, "Rural Criminal Offenders,"AmericanJournalof Sociology, 6 See Daniel Glaser, "CriminalityTheories and Behavioral Images," American 50 (July, 1944), pp. 38-45. Edwin M. Journalof Sociology,61 (March, 1956), pp. Lemert,"An Isolation and Closure Theory 433-444. Glaser, "DifferentialAssociation of Naive Check Forgery,"The Journal of and Criminological Prediction," op. cit., Criminal Law, Criminology and Police pp. 10-13. Naess, op. cit., pp. 174-179. ? Melvin DeFleur and Richard Quinney, Science,44, (September-October, 1953), pp. 293-307. Reiss and Rhodes, op. cit. Cressey, "A Reformulationof Sutherland'sDifferen"Application and Verificationof the Dif- tial Association Theory and a Strategyfor ferentialAssociation Theory," op. cit., pp. EmpiricalVerification,"Journalof Research 51-52. Cressey,Other People's Money, op. in Crime and Delinquency, 3 (January, cit., pp. 149-151. Glaser, op. cit.,pp. 12-13. 1966), p. 13. This content downloaded from 129.93.16.3 on Sun, 29 Sep 2013 15:16:04 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 130 SOCIAL PROBLEMS ciationhas revolvedaroundthe fact thatit does notadequately the portray processby whichcriminalbehavioris learned.But as Cresseyexplains: While sociologists knowa greatdeal aboutthestructure of theenvironment fromwhichdeviantscome,we know variaverylittleaboutthedetermining withinthisenvironment. It is one thingto criticise thetheory for blesoperating theory failureto specify thelearning processac- The burdenof criminological curatelyand anotherto specifywhich today is to combineknowledgeof aspectsof thelearning processshouldbe structural pressureswithexplanations includedand in whatway.8 of "whyonlysomeof thepersonson of course,was as inter- whomthispressureis exertedbecome Sutherland, estedin explaining the"epidemiology" non-conformists."1' It is forthisreasonthatthe recent of crimeas in explaining how theinto re-examine by C. R. Jeffery dividualcomesto engagein behavior effort in violationof thelaw and insisted that differential associationin light of the two explanations mustbe consis- modernlearningtheorymarksa new in theabundanceof thinking tent.9Differential social organization departure the (normative conflict)has beensuccess- and writingthathas characterized fulin "makingsense"of variations in intellectualhistoryof this theory,.2 crimerates.But differential axiomatizaassociation In spite of theirintricate has been less successful in explicating tion of the theory,DeFleur and the processby whichthis differentialQuinney,for example,recognizethat organization producesindividual crimi- even they have left the learning associationunThis seems to be not to due the processin differential nality. But, theynote,"modernreof associations for specified. lack of importance criminalbehaviorbut: inforcement learning theorywould . handle this problem This is '."1 out... ratherto thefactthatthetheory what precisely Jeffery proposedto do ran the capacityof eitherpsychology or socialpsychology to giveadequate,scien- and to theextentthatthisobjectiveis tificanswers to thequestionof whythere servedby discussinglearningtheory are such qualitative(selective) differ- and criminalbehaviortogether, he is encesin humanassociation.io at leastpartiallysuccessful. However, does not in factmakeit clear It now appears,however, thatthere Jeffery differential assois a bodyof verified theorywhichis justhow Sutherland's maybe revised.His exadequateto thetaskof accurately speci- ciationtheory differential refyingthis process.Modern learning planationincorporates theoryseemscapableof providingin- inforcement: sights into the problemof uniting actoccursin an en-. [A] criminal structuraland genetic formulations. vironment in whichin thepasttheactor has beenreinforced forbehavingin this 8 Cressey,"Epidemiologyand Individual manner, and the aversive consequences attached to the behavior have been of Conduct,"op. cit., p. 54. such a nature that they do not control 9 Sutherlandand Cressey,op. cit., p. 80. or preventthe resoonse.14 Albert K. Cohen, Alfred R. Lindesmith, and Karl F. Schuessler(eds.), The Sutherland Papers, Bloomington: Indiana Uni- This statement, as it stands,bearsno versityPublications,Social Science Series, obviousor directrelationto SutherNo. 15, 1956, pp. 5-42. That Sutherland land's differential and noassociation, intended an explanation of the two-fold makeit clear problem of rates of crime and individual whereelse does Jeffery criminal behavior is, of course, the basic 11 Cressey,"The Theory of Differential point of Cressey's paper, "Epidemiology and Individual Conduct," op. cit. Association," op. cit., p. 5. 12 Jeffery, o10George B. Vold, Theoretical Crimiop. cit. nology, New York: Oxford University 13 DeFleur and Quinney, op. cit., p. 3. Press, 1958, p. 198. 14 Ibid., p. 295. This content downloaded from 129.93.16.3 on Sun, 29 Sep 2013 15:16:04 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions CriminalBehavior 131 is a re- setof principles. how differential reinforcement Theyenablethehanof differential formulation association. dlingof a greatvariety of observational evidenceabout does discussmodernlearning as well as experimental Jeffery but he does not showhow humanbehavior. principles, theseprinciplesmay be incorporated It is thepurposeofthispapertotake withinthe framework of Sutherland's thefirststepin thedirection to which of the nor how theseprinciplesmay Jeffery theory, points.A restatement will not an alternative of past empirical theory, lead to explanations theory, be presented,although,of necessity, findings. to differential ideasnotintrinsic Jeffery's theoryand his discussion certain will have to be introduced of criminal behaviorand learningthe- association as and additionswill be made to the oryremainsnot so muchincorrect unconvincing.His presentationof original propositions.It should be is supported wholly pointedoutthatDeFleurand Quinney learningprinciples that withlower have been able to demonstrate to experiments byreference whenstated to criminal Sutherland's andhisextension propositions, organisms behavioris mainlythroughanecdotal in theformof settheory, appearto be the consistent. material. The potential internally and illustrative By arranging in axiomatic articleis propositions value and impactof Jeffery's form,stating to them in logical ratherthan verbal diminished by not callingattention thealreadylargeand growingbodyof symbols, theyhave broughtthe theobehavioral reticalgrammarup to date.'5 Such literaturein experimental in thispaper,at science,especiallyevidenceusing hu- is not our intention man subjects,thathas directimplica- all. We recognizeand appreciatethe tionsfordifferential association of statingthepropositions theory. importance fashion.We do We are basicallyin agreement with in a formal,deductive that learningtheoryhas pro- feel,however,thatthistaskis, at the Jeffery to the more gressedto the point whereit seems presenttime,subsidiary associationcan urgenttask of: (1) makingexplicit likelythatdifferential in a moresophisticated and the learningprocess,as it is now be restated testableformin thelanguageof mod- understood by modern behavioral ern learningtheory.But thatrestate- science,fromwhichthe propositions association can be in a thorough of differential mentmustbe attempted fashionbeforewe can expectothersto derived;(2) fullyreformulating the statement in light beginsto do thisand theory, acceptit. Jeffery bystatement, but they of thecurrent his thoughtsare significant, of thislearnknowledge do nottakeintoaccountthetheoryas ing process;and (3) helpingcrimia whole. becomeawareof theadvances nologists in in learning research The amountof empirical andresearch thatare theory the social psychologyof learning directly relevantto an explanation of No claimis made clearlyhas shownthattheconceptsin criminal behavior.16 a finalstatement. to oper- thatthisconstitutes aresusceptible learningtheory ationalization. Therefore, applyingan If it has anyseminalvalueat all, that to is, if it provokesa seriousnew look at setof learningprinciples integrated associationtheoryshould differential 15 DeFleur and Quinney, op. cit. adequately providetherevisionneeded 16 Our main concernhere, of course, is for empiricaltesting.These learning with the nine statementsof the theoryas thou- a genetic explanation of the process by principlesare based on literally hourscovering which the individual comes to engage in sands of experimental behavior. We do not lose sight of scale illegal a wide rangeof thephylogenetic the fact, however, that this must be inteand morenearlyconstitute empiricallygrated with explanations of the variation thananyother and location of crime. derivedlawsofbehavior This content downloaded from 129.93.16.3 on Sun, 29 Sep 2013 15:16:04 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 132 SOCIAL PROBLEMS thetheory andencourages further thereare effort Accordingto thistheory, in this direction,our objectivewill two majorcategories of behavior.On have beenserved. theone hand,thereis reflexive or respondentbehaviorwhichis behavior Associationand Modern that is governedby the stimulithat Differential BehaviorTheory elicit it. Such behaviorsare largely In thissectionthenineformalprop- associatedwiththe autonomicsystem. ositionsin whichSutherland expressed The workofPavlovis of specialsignifhis theorywill be analyzedin terms icancehere.On theotherhand,thereis of behaviortheoryand researchand operantbehavior:behaviorwhichinExwill be reformulated as seven new volvesthecentralnervoussystem. amples of operantbehaviorinclude propositions. (See Table 1.) verbalbehavior,playingball, driving I. "Criminal behavior is learned."VIII. a car, and buyinga new suit. It has "The processof learningcriminalbe- been foundthatthisclassof behavior haviorbyassociation withcriminal and is a functionof its past and present anti-criminal patternsinvolvesall of environmentalconsequences.Thus, the mechanisms thatare involvedin whena particular operantis followed anyotherlearning." by certainkindsof stimuli,that beof occurrence will frequency Sinceboththefirstand eighthsen- havior's increasein the future.These stimuli tencesin the theoryobviouslyforma stimulior reidea,it seemsbestto statethem are called reinforcing unitary and includefood, money, together.Sutherlandwas aware that inforcers20 thesestatements did notsufficiently de- brain. However, most behavioral scientists scribethelearningprocess,"7 butthese in this area are extremelycareful in hytwoitemsleaveno doubtthatdifferen-pothesizing interveningvariables or contial association was meantto fit structs,whethertheyare egos, personalities, theory responsesets,or some sort of internalcominto a generalexplanationof human puters. Generally they adopt the position behaviorand, as muchis unambigu- thatthe only real value of a constructis its remarks ability to improve one's predictions.If it ouslystatedin the prefatory of thetheory: an "explanation of crim- does not, then it must be excluded in accordancewith the rule of parsimony. inal behaviorshouldbe a specific part 20 It has been said by some that a tauof a generaltheoryof behavior."'s tologyis involvedhere.But thereis nothing Modernbehaviortheoryas a general tautological about classifying events in effects.As Skinner,op. cit., theory provides us with a good termsof their has noted, this criterionis both idea of whatthemechanisms are that pp. 72-73,and empirical objective.There is only one are involvedin theprocessof acquir- sure way of tellingwhetheror not a given stimulus event is reinforcingto a given ing behavior.'9 17 Cressey,1960, op. cit.,p. 54. 18 Sutherlandand Cressey,op. cit.,p. 75. 19 It should be mentionedat the outset thatthereis more than one learningtheory. The one we will employis called Behavior Theory. More specifically,it is that variety of behavior theorylargely associated with the name of B. F. Skinner. (Science and Human Behavior, New York: Macmillan, 1953.) It differsfromother learningtheories in thatit restrictsitselfto the relations between observable, measurable behavior and observable, measurable conditions. There is nothingin this theorythat denies the existence,or importance,or even the inherentinterestof the nervous systemor individual under given conditionsand that is to make a direct test: observe the frequency of a selected behavior, then make a stimulus event contingentupon it and observe any change in frequency.If there is a change in frequencythen we may classifythe stimulus as reinforcingto the individual under the statedconditions.Our reasoningwould become circular,however, if we went on to assertthata given stimulus strengthensthe behavior because it is reinforcing. Furthermore,not all stimuli, when presented,will increasethe frequency of the behaviorwhichproducedthem.Some stimuli will increase the frequencyof the behavior which removes them, still others will neither strengthennor weaken the This content downloaded from 129.93.16.3 on Sun, 29 Sep 2013 15:16:04 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions CriminalBehavior 133 clothes,objectsof varioussorts,social ment. (3) A behaviormay produce eventsand thereby deand social certainstimulus attention, approval,affection status.This entireprocessis called creasein frequency. Such stimuliare One distin- called aversivestimulior, more repositive reinforcement. of operantbe- cently,punishers.21The entirebehavguishingcharacteristic havioras opposedto respondent behav- ioralprocessis calledpositivepunishior,then,is thatthelatteris a function ment.(4) A behaviormayremoveor certainstimuluseventsand of its antecedent stimuli,whereasthe terminate formeris a function of its antecedent therebydecreasein frequency.Such stimuliarepositivereinforcers and the environmental consequences. punishment. Typically,operantand respondent processis termednegative behaviorsoccurtogetherin an indi- (5) A behaviormayproduceor reeventswhichdo vidual's everydaybehavior,and they movecertainstimulus interactin extremely intricateways. not changethe behavior'sfrequency to fullyunderstand any at all. Such stimuliare called neutral Consequently, set of patterned theinvesti- stimuli.(6) A behavior mayno longer responses, of the producecustomary stimulus eventsand gatorshouldobservetheeffects as well as therebydecreasein frequency.The operantson therespondents on the stimuliwhichareproducedareneutral the effects of the respondents operants.The connectionsbetween stimuli,and the process,extinction. stimulus no longer behaviorsare Whena reinforcing operantand respondent to increasethe futureprobcrucialto an analysisof atti- functions especially behaviors. abilityof thebehaviorwhichproduced and conflict tudes,emotional conse- it,we saytheindividualis satiated.To In everydaylife, different of the property upon restorethereinforcing quences are usuallycontingent classesof behavior.This re- stimulus different we need onlydeprivetheinlationshipbetweenbehaviorand its dividualof it fora time.22 functions to altertherate The increasein thefrequency of occonsequences and formof behavioras well as itsre- currenceof a behaviorthat is reinof the en- forcedis the verypropertyof reinlationshipto manyfeatures thatpermitsthefascinating vironment.The process of operant forcement is the most importantvarietyand subtletythat occur in reinforcement beprocessbywhichbehavioris generated operantas opposedto respondent Thereare,in fact,six havior.Anotherprocessproducing and maintained. the consequences varietywe see in behavioris thatof possible environmental relativeto theLaw of OperantBehav- conditioning. When a primary or unior. (1) A behaviormayproducecer- conditioned stimulussuch reinforcing tain stimuluseventsand therebyin- as food is repeatedly paired with a the latterwill evencrease in frequency.As we have neutralstimulus, indicatedabove,suchstimuliarecalled tuallyfunction as a reinforcing stimuof this and the processis lus as well. An illustration positivereinforcers called positivereinforcement. (2) A would be as follows. The milk a behaviormay remove,avoid, or ter- motherfeedsto her infantis an unminate certainstimulusevents and conditioned If the food is reinforcer. therebyincreasein frequency.Such 21 N. H. Azrin and D. F. Hake, "Constimuliare termednegativereinforcersditioned Punishment,"Journal of the Exand the process,negativereinforce-perimentalAnalysis of Behavior, 8 (Septhem.See Robwhichproduced behavior RonaldL. Akers,"Are ert L. Burgess, ?" The OperantPrinciplesTautological PsychologicalRecord, 16 (July, 1966), pp. 305-312. tember,1965), pp. 279-293. 22 See Jacob L. Gewirtz and Donald M. Baer, "Deprivation and Satiation of Social Reinforcersas Drive Conditions," Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology,57, 1958, pp. 165-172. This content downloaded from 129.93.16.3 on Sun, 29 Sep 2013 15:16:04 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 134 SocIAL PROBLEMS the differential reinforcement, repeatedly pairedwithsocialattention,through and approval,these latter child will eventually only speak the affection, will eventually becomereinforcing as word "daddy" when his fatheris will the motherherselfas a stimulus presentor in other"appropriate" conobject. Later these conditionedrein- ditions.We maysay thatthe father, can be usedto strengthen other as a stimulusobject,functionsas a forcers behaviorsby makingthesereinforcersdiscriminative stimulus(SD) setting contingent upon thosenew behaviors. the occasionfor the operantverbal Differential reinforcement mayalso response"daddy"becausein the past unaltertheformof a response. This pro- suchbehaviorhas been reinforced cess is calledshapingor responsedif- der suchconditions. It has also been discovered thatthe It can be exemplified by ferentiation. is a childlearningto speak.At first, the pattern or scheduleof reinforcement as the amountof reinparentwill reinforce anyvocalization, as important butas timewearson, and as thechild forcement. For example,a fixed-interwhere growsolder,the parentwill differen-val scheduleof reinforcement, tiallyreinforceonly those responses a responseis reinforced only aftera whichsuccessfully certain certainamountof time has passed, approximate criteria. The childwill be seento pro- producesa lowerrateof responsethan based ceed frommeregruntsto "baby-talk" thatobtainedwithreinforcement on a fixed-ratio to articulate schedulewherea respeech.23 Of course,organisms, whetherpi- sponseis reinforced onlyaftera certain of responses havealreadybeen geons, monkeysor people, do not number a responserateobusually go around behavingin all emitted.Similarly scheduleis possiblewaysat all possibletimes.In tainedwith a fixed-ratio short,behaviordoes not occur in a lowerthanthatobtainedwitha varivacuum; a given behavioris appro- able-ratioschedule,where reinforceBy appro- mentoccursfor a certainproportion priateto a givensituation. has of responsesrandomlyvaried about priatewe meanthatreinforcement been forthcoming only undercertain somecentralvalue.A scheduleof reinconditionsand it is underthesecon- forcement, then,refersto theresponse ditionsthatthe behaviorwill occur. contingencies upon which reinforceIn otherwords,differential reinforce-ment depends. All of the various besides theprobabilityschedulesof reinforcement, mentnotonlyincreases of a response,it also makesthatre- producinglawful responsecharacterrates, sponsemoreprobableupon the recur- istics,producelawfulextinction rence of conditionsthe same as or once reinforcement is discontinued. on an inbehaviorreinforced similar to those that were present Briefly, schedule takes longer to Such termittent duringpreviousreinforcements. on thanbehaviorreinforced a processis calledstimuluscontrolor extinguish schedule. For example, a continuous stimulusdiscrimination. a childwhenhe is firsttaughtto say of reinforceThis concept, schedules of which "daddy"mayrepeatit whenanymale ment,is one theimplications or even,in theverybegin- are littleunderstood is present, by manybehavso a few additional ning,whenany adult is present.But ioral scientists, wordsare in order.Firstof all, social be the 23 This seems to processinvolved are for the mostpart in learning to become a marihuana user. reinforcements One obvious resultof By successive approximations, the user intermittent. to extinction learns (from others) to close on the ap- thisfactis theresistance propriate techniques and effectsof using and satiationof much social behavmarihuana. See Howard S. Becker, Outior, desirableas well as undesirable. siders, Glencoe, Ill.: The Free Press, 1963, This is not peculiarto humansocial pp. 41-58. This content downloaded from 129.93.16.3 on Sun, 29 Sep 2013 15:16:04 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions CriminalBehavior 135 to it. These rebehavior,for even lower organisms have beenconditioned seldom are faced with a continuous sponsesmay be competitive, thatis, schedule.Nevertheless,onlyone or theothercan occur.When reinforcement reinforcements mediatedby another thisis so,theparticular which response organismare probablymuchless reli- doesoccurmayalso dependuponother stimulipresentin the able than those produced by the discriminative This is thecase situationthatcontrolonlyone or the physicalenvironment. becausesocial reinforcement depends otherresponse.Finally,whilesomeof upon behavioralprocessesin the rein- the stimulito whichan individualreforcerwhichare not undergood con- spondsemanatefromthe externalensocialand otherwise, some A moresubtle, vironment, trolby the reinforcee. im- comefromhis ownbehavior.An indimethodological, thoughessentially plicationof thisis thatbecausemost vidual is, then,not onlya sourceof he is also a sourceof some social behaviorsare maintainedby responses, thatcaneffect hisown scheduleswhich stimuli-stimuli complexintermittent havebeenshapedovera longperiodof behavior. time,a socialobserver, newlyentering The mostgeneralbehavioralprina situation mayhaveextreme difficultyciple is the Law of OperantBehavior in immediatelydeterminingexactly whichsaysthatbehavioris a function a particular behav- of its past and current whatis maintaining environmental ior or set of behaviors.Nor can the consequences. Therehavebeennumerindividualhimselfbe expectedto be ous studieswithchildren26 as well as his own contingenciesadults27 able to identify whichindicatethatindividual of reinforcement.24 behaviorconformsto this law. Of An important aspectof thistheory muchmoreinterestto sociologists is of thegeneralways an experiment is thepresentation designedby Azrinand that stimuli and responsescan be Lindsleyin 195628to investigate coof operativesocial behavior.Theirstudy formedintocomplexconstellations events.Althoughthe demonstrated stimulus-response thatcooperative behavior aresimpleandmustbe couldbe developed,maintained, basicprinciples elimiseparatedto distinguishand study natedand reinstated the solelythrough func- manipulation them,in actuallifetheprinciples of the contingency beand consistof complex tweenreinforcing tionin concert, stimuliand the coSuch com- operativeresponse.This basic finding arraysand constellations.25 plexitycan be seen in the fact that has receivedmuchsubsequent support. thatnot single S-R eventsmay be combined It has also beendemonstrated into sequenceson the basis of condi- only cooperativebehavior,but also tioningprinciples.That is, responses competitive behaviorand leadingand to havestimulus can be thought properties.In addition,morethanone re26 See, for example, S. W. Bijou and P. sponsemaycomeunderthecontrolof T. Sturges, "Positive Reinforcersfor Exa particular stimulus.Thus,whenthe perimental Studies with Children-Constimulusoccurs,it will tendto set the sumables and Manipulatables," Child De30, 1959, pp. 151-170. that velopment, occasionforthevariousresponses 27 J. G. Holland, "Human Vigilance," Cressey encounteredthis problem in Science, 128, 1959, pp. 61-67; Harold "ConditioningHistoryand Human tryingto get trustviolators to reconstruct Weiner, past associations. Cressey, Other People's Fixed-Interval Performance," Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, Money, op. cit., p. 149. 25 Arthur Staats, "An Integrated-Func- 7 (September,1964), pp. 383-385. 28 N. H. Azrin and O. R. Lindsley,"The tional LearningApproach to Comolex Human Behavior," Technical Report 28, Con- Reinforcementof Cooperation Between tract ONR and Arizona State University, Children," The Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology,52 (January,1956). 1965. 24 This content downloaded from 129.93.16.3 on Sun, 29 Sep 2013 15:16:04 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 136 SOCIAL PROBLEMS followingbehaviorare a functionof "normal" social behavior function theirpastand presentconsequences. accordingto theLaw of OperantBeAnotherof thebehavioral principles havior.But whatabout"deviant"bewe mentioned wasthatof stimulus dis- havior?Can we be sure thesesame A discriminative crimination. stimulus principlesare operatinghere?Unforis a stimulusin thepresenceof which tunatelytherehave been no studies a particular operantresponseis rein- which attemptto test directlythe forced.Muchof ourbehavior has come relevance of thesebehavioral principles underthe controlof certainenviron- to criminalbehavior.But therehave socialstimuli because been several experimental mental, including investigain the past it has been reinforced in tionsof deviantbehaviorsemittedby the presenceof thosestimuli.In an mentalpatients.For example,in a experimentby Donald Cohen,29a studybyAyllonand Michael,30it was normal13-year-old boy namedJustin, shown that the bizarrebehaviorsof when placed under identicalexperi- psychoticsfunctionedaccordingto mentalconditions be- theselearningprinciples.In thisparemitted different haviorsdependingupon whetherhis ticularstudyvariousbehavioralprobwas his mother, were cured" sister, lemsofpsychotic brother, partner patients ora stranger. The results of this through of reinforcethemanipulation friend, as that Jus- mentcontingencies. demonstrated Suchprinciples investigation tin's social behaviorwas differentially extinction, negativeand positivereinwereeffectively butit also forcement, andsatiation controlled byreinforcement; was dif- utilizedto eliminate thathisbehavior theunwantedbedemonstrated ferent depending upon the social haviors.31 This studywas one of the the firstexperimental stimulipresent,thus reaffirming testsof the contenbutalso principleof stimulusdiscrimination.tionthatnotonlyconforming In otherwords,thedynamic or unproperties manyunusual,inappropriate, of his social behavior,whetherco- desirablebehaviorsare shaped and leadingor fol- maintainedthroughsocial reinforceoperative, competitive, Isaacs, byhisprevious ment. In anotherexperiment lowing,werecontrolled historywith his Thomas, and Goldiamond3"2demonextra-experimental teammates, althoughthe experimenterstratethatcomplexadjustivebehaviors could changethosebehaviorsby ex- can be operantly in longconditioned availalteringthecontingenciestermpsychotics perimentally bymanipulating It is, of course,al- able reinforcers. of reinforcement. to saythatan individual In yet anotherinvestigation,33" mosta truism the in the presenceof behavesdifferently 30 T. Ayllon and J. Michael, "The Psyof chiatricNurse as a Behavioral Engineer," different people. The significance this experiment, however,is thatthe Journal of the ExperimentalAnalysis of was able to isolate the Behavior, 2, 1959, pp. 323-334. investigator variablesand the prin- 31 There is, of course, no intentionon determining our part to equate "mental" illness or simiciplesby whichtheyoperatedto pro- larly severe behavior problemswith crimiduce thiscommonphenomenon. nal behavior.The only connectionthat we While thisis by no meansa com- are making is that both may be seen to basic beplete survey of the relevant functionaccording to the same havioral principles and both may be in testsof the behavioral opposition experimental to establishednorms. 32 W. Isaacs, J. Thomas, and I. Goldiaprinciples outlinedabove,it mayserve to point out that many formsof mond, "Application of Operant Condition29 Donald J. Cohen, "Justin and His Peers: an Experimental Analysis of a Child's Social World," Child Development,33, 1962. ing to Reinstate Verbal Behavior in Psychotics,"Journalof Speech and Disorders, 25, 1960, pp. 8-12. 33 T. Ayllon and N. Azrin, "The Meaof Behavior of surementand Reinforcement This content downloaded from 129.93.16.3 on Sun, 29 Sep 2013 15:16:04 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions CriminalBehavior 137 personnel of a mental hospital ward dence we would amend Sutherland's for schizophrenicsrecordedthe behav- firstand eighthpropositions to read: behavior is learnedaccordior of the patientsand providedconse- I. Criminal of operantcondiquences to it accordingto certainpre- ing to theprinciples establishedprocedures.Without going tioning. into the manyimportantdetailsof this long investigation,we may note that II. "Criminalbehavioris learnedin withotherpersonsin the in each of the six experimentsthat interaction were carried out, the results demon- processof communication." stratethat reinforcement was effective As DeFleur and Quinney have in maintaining desired performances, noted,the major implication of this even though these were "back-ward" proposition interaction is thatsymbolic psychoticswho had resisted all pre- is a necessary conditionforthe learnvious therapy,includingpsychoanalysis, ing of criminalbehavior.36 Of direct electroshocktherapy, lobotomies and relevanceto this is an experiment so forth. designedtotesttherelative significance and reinforceIn each experiment, the performanceof verbal instructions fellto a nearzero levelwhentheestab- mentcontingencies in generating and lished response-reinforcement relation maintaining behava certain class of was . The standard iors.37In brief,the resultsindicated had beento discontinued.. forreinforcement procedure providetokens... [exchanged]for a thatbehaviorcouldnot be maintained de- solely through verbal instructions. Performance varietyof reinforcers. creasedwhenthisresponse-reinforcement However,it was also discoveredthat (1) by delivering it was an relationwas disrur~ted arduoustask to extremely tokensindependently of the response withwhile still allowingexchangeof tokens shapea setof complexbehaviors for the reinforcers as dis(Exp II and III), out using verbal instructions the tokensystem criminativestimuli. Behavior was (2) by discontinuing entirely but providingcontinuing access developedand to the reinforcers (Exp IV), or (3) by quicklyand effectively of verbal bya combination of tokensfor maintained the delivery discontinuing conseand reinforcement a previouslyreinforced responsewhile instructions simultaneously providingtokensfor a quences.Symbolic interaction is, then, alternativeresponse(Exp I not different, of reinenough, contingencies and VI). Further,the effectivenessof the reinforcement proceduredid not appear to be limitedto an all-or-nonebasis. Patients selected and performedthe assignmentthat provided the larger numwas ber of tokens when reinforcement available for more than one assignment (Exp V).34 mustalso be present. forcement From the perspectiveof modern behaviortheory, two aspectsof socializationare usuallyconsideredto distinguishit fromotherprocessesof behavioralchange: (1) Only those behavioralchangesoccurring through Again, we cannot review all of the are consideredrelevant;(2) relevant literature, yet perhaps the learning the changesin behaviorhaving three investigationscited will serve to only theiroriginsin interaction withother emphasize that manyformsof deviant behavior are shaped and maintained 1964. L. Krasner and L. UlIman, Research by various contingenciesof reinforce- in Behavior Modification,New York: Holt, ment.35Given this experimentalevi- Rinehart and Winston, 1965. L. Ullman and L. Krasner, Case Studies in Behavior Psychotics,"Journal of the Experimental Modification,New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1964. Analysisof Behavior,8 (November,1965), 36 DeFleur and Quinney, op. cit., p. 3. pp. 357-383. 34 Ibid., p. 381. 37 T. Ayllon and N. Azrin, "ReinforcewithMental Patients," mentand Instructions 35 See also J. J. Eysenck (ed.), Experiments in Behaviour Therapy, New York: Journal of the ExperimentalAnalysis of PergamonPress, The Macmillan Company, Behavior,7, 1964, pp. 327-331. This content downloaded from 129.93.16.3 on Sun, 29 Sep 2013 15:16:04 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 138 SOCIAL PROBLEMS persons are consideredproductsof B, childA wouldlaterselectchildB The behavior of selectsocialization.8 Sutherland's theory as a companion. may,then,be seen to be a theoryof ing childB was notthebehaviorthat differential socialization sincehe, too, was reinforced. The experimental conrestricted himselfto learninghaving ditionssimplypaired child B with its origin in interaction with other positivereinforcement. In accordance persons.While social learningis, in- with the principleof conditioning, andevenpredominant,childB had becomea conditioned deed,important posiit certainly does notexhaustthelearn- tive reinforcer. As such any behavior thepresence ofchildB ing process.In short,we may learn whichproduced suchbehaviors, (and, thus, our behaviorwould be wouldbe strengthened, modified)withoutany directcontact for example, as verbal responses withanotherperson.As such,Suther- requestingchild B's company.Thus, hasnoted,theresults of this land's theorymay be seen to suffer as Staats42 froma significant lacuna in that it studyindicatethat the conceptsof thepossibility stimuliand groupcohesion of deviantbe- reinforcing neglected haviorbeinglearnedin nonsocialsitua- are relatedwhenanalyzedin termsof setof learning tions.Consequently, to be an adequate an integrated principles. to reformutheoryof deviantbehavior,thetheory Glaser43has attempted mustbe amendedfurtherto include late Sutherland'sdifferential associathoseformsof deviantbehaviorthat tiontheory in termsof socialidentificaare learnedin the absenceof social tion.It shouldbe recognized, however, as well as modeling reinforcement. Other people are not thatidentification the only sourceof reinforcement al- and imitativebehavior (which are thoughtheyare the mostimportant.usuallyassociatedwithidentification) As Jeffery39 of thesocialhas aptlynoted,stealing comprise justone feature is reinforcing in and byitselfwhether izationprocess.Furthermore, suchbeotherpeople knowaboutit and rein- haviormay be analyzedquite parsiforceit sociallyor not.The samemay moniouslywith the principlesof be said to apply to manyformsof modernbehaviortheory. For example, in a studyby Banduraand Ross,44a aggressive behaviors.40 There are manystudieswhichare child experienced the pairingof one relevant to socialinteraction andsocial- adult with positivereinforcers. Preizationon the one hand,and Suther- sumablythis adult would becomea And indeed, land'ssecondproposition on theother. conditionedreinforcer. For example,in a studyby Lott and later it was found that the child Lott41it was foundthatwhenchildA imitatedthisadult morethanhe did was reinforced in thepresence of child an adult who was not paired with That is, the one positivereinforcers. 38 Paul E. Secord and Carl W. Backman, adult,as he becamea stronger reinSocial Psychology,New York: McGraw- forcer, had also becomea stronger SD Hill, 1964. for imitatingor followingbehavior. op. cit. Jeffery, 39 40 For some evidencethat aggressivebehavior may be of a respondentas well as an operantnature,see N. Azrin,R. Hutchinson, and R. McLaughlin, "The Opportunity for Aggression as an Operant Reinforcerduring Aversive Stimulation,"Journal of the ExperimentalAnalysis of Behavior,8 (May, 1965), pp. 171-180. 41 B. E. Lott and A. J. Lott, "The Formationof PositiveAttitudesToward Group Members," The Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology,61, 1960, pp. 297-300. 42 ArthurStaats,Human Learning,New York: Holt, Rinehartand Winston, 1964, p. 333. 43 Glaser, "Criminality Theories and Behavioral Images," op. cit. 44 A. Bandura,D. Ross, and S. Ross, "A ComparativeTest of the Status Envy, Social Power and the Secondary Reinforcement Theories of IdentificationLearning," Journalof Abnormaland Social Psychology, 67, 1963, pp. 527-534. This content downloaded from 129.93.16.3 on Sun, 29 Sep 2013 15:16:04 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions CriminalBehavior 139 criminativestimulusfunctionof a group.For example,specificindividuals as physicalstimulimay acquire discriminative controloveran individual's behavior.The child in our exfor certain ample above is reinforced gestedthata changein the reinforcingkindsof behaviorsin the presenceof value of an individual will change his his parent,thusthe parent'spresence other may come to controlthis type of power as a stimuluscontrolling people's behaviorin variousways. An behavior. He is reinforced fordifferent increasein the reinforcing value of an individualwill increaseverbal and motor behaviors in thepresenceof his peers, approach, or companionable responses, who thencometo set theoccasionfor respectfulresponses, affectionatebehav- this type of behavior. Consequently ior, followingbehavior,smiling,pleasant mustbe amendedto conversation,sympatheticresponses and this proposition read: II. Criminalbehavioris learned the like.45 both in nonsocialsituationsthatare The relevanceof these studiesis or discriminative, and that theyhave isolatedsome of the reinforcing through that social interactionin variableswhereby thebe- whichthe behavior other determining of persons haviorof one personis influenced or is or discriminative reinforcing for the of another behavior as changedby criminal behavior. well as the principlesby whichthese variablesoperate.We have,of course, III. "The principalpartof thelearnthesurface.Manyother ing of criminal behavioroccurswithin onlyscratched variablesare involved.For instance, intimate personalgroups." not all people are equallyeffective in In termsof ouranalysis, theprimary or influencing thebehavior controlling wouldbe seen to be themajor group of others.The personwhocan mediate sourceof an individual'ssocial reinthe mostreinforcers will exercisethe forcements. The bulk of behavioral most power. Thus, the parent,who whichthechildreceives occurs training controls moreof hischild'sreinforcers,at a timewhen the trainers, usually will exercisemore power than an the parents,possessa verypowerful older siblingor the temporary "baby system of reinforcers. In fact,we might sitter."As the child becomesolder characterize a primary groupas a genand less dependentupon the parent eralizedreinforcer with associated (one for many of his reinforcers, other manyreinforcers, as well conditioned individualsor groups such as his as unconditioned).And, as we sugpeersmayexercisemorepower.Carry- gestedabove,as thechildgrowsolder, the groups other than the familymay ing the analysisone step further, personwhohas accessto a largerange cometo controla majority of an indiof aversivestimuliwill exertmore vidual'sreinforcers, theadolescent e.g., than one who has not. Thus a power peergroup. peergroupmaycometo exercisemore To say thatthe primarygroup is power over a child's behaviorthan theprincipalmolderof an individual's the parent even thoughthe parent behavioral is not to ignore repertoire maystillcontrola largeshareof the social learningwhich may occur in child'spositivereinforcers. other contexts.As we noted above, In additionto thereinforcing func- learningfromsocial models can be tionof an individualor group,there in termsof these adequately explained as seen in the Cohen the and is, behavioralprinciples. The analysiswe Bandura and Ross studies,the disemployedtherecan also be extended to learningfromthe massmediaand 45 Staats, 1964, op. cit., p. 333. Thus, Bandura's and Ross's results demonstrate thatimitating or following behavioris at leastin parta functionof thereinforcing valueof people as social stimuli. On thebasisoftheseresults it is sug- This content downloaded from 129.93.16.3 on Sun, 29 Sep 2013 15:16:04 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 140 SOCIAL PROBLEMS from "reference"groups. In any case, motivation maybe seen to be a funcwe mayalterthisproposition to read: tionof theprocessesbywhichstimuli value III. The principalpartof thelearning acquireconditioned reinforcing stimuli.Reof criminalbehavioroccursin those and becomediscriminative stimuli theindividual's inforcersand discriminative groupswhichcomprise here would become the dependent majorsourceof reinforcements. the independentvariables IV. "When criminal behavior is variables; wouldbe the conditioning procedures includes(a) tech- previously learned,thelearning mentioned and thelevelof thecrime,which niquesof committing deprivation.For example, when a some- prisoneris deprived are sometimes verycomplicated, of contactwith timesverysimple; (b) the specific members of theoppositesex,suchsex directionof motives,drives,rational- reinforcers will become much more izations,and attitudes." thosesexualreinforcThus, powerful. A studyby Klaus and Glaser46as ers thatare available,such as homowouldcometo exerta well as manyotherstudies47 indicate sexualcontact, thatreinforcement areof greatdealofinfluence andwouldshape contingencies in learningvarious behaviorsthat would be unlikelyto primeimportance behavioraltechniques. And, And,of course, occurwithoutsuch deprivation. many techniques,both simple and withoutgoing any furtherinto this arespecific to a particular topic,somestimulimaybe morereincomplicated, deviantact suchas jimmying, picking forcing,under similarconditionsof forcertainindividualsor locks of buildingsand cars,picking deprivation, short-and big-contechniques, groupsthanfor others.Furthermore, pockets, Other the satiationof one or moreof these andsafe-cracking. counterfeiting wouldallowforan increase techniquesin criminalbehaviormay reinforcers of others. or neutral in therelative be learnedin conforming strength contexts,e.g., drivinga car, signing Much, therefore,can be learned characteristics of checks,shootinga gun, etc. In any aboutthe distinctive event,we need not alterthe firstpart a groupbyknowingwhattheavailable reinforcers are and the and effective of thisproposition. The secondpartof thisproposition stimuli, both deservesomeadditional analysis isandthat reinforcing does,however, positive negative, elicit certain recomments.Sutherland'smajor focus spondents.Unconditionedreinforcerselicit hereseemsto be motivation. Much of these responses without training, condiwhatwe havealreadydiscussedin this tioned reinforcerselicit such responses throughrespondentconditioning.Staats and paper oftengoes under the general Staats (Complex Human Behavior, New The topic of York: Holt, headingof motivation. Rinehartand Winston, 1964) as it is com- have characterizedsuch respondentsas "atis as important motivation is relatedto the titude" responses. Thus, a positive reinplex.This complexity attitude. Furtherfactthatthe same stimulusmayhave forcer elicits a positivehave theserespondents stimuluscharit maybe botha rein- more, two functions: acteristicswhich may become discriminative a discriminative stimulus and stimuli setting the occasion for a certain forcing which class of operantscalled "striving"responses thebehavior stimulus controlling positive reinforcersand escape and/or is followedby reinforcement.48 Thus, for avoidancebehaviorsfornegativereinforcers. 46 D. J. Klaus and R. Glaser, "Increasing Team ProficiencyThrough Training," Pittsburg:American Instituteof Research, 1960. 47 See Robert L. Burgess, "Communication Networks and Behavioral Consequences," forthcoming. 48 A central principle underlyingthis These respondents and their attendant stimuli may be generalized to other reinforcing stimuli. Thus, striving responses can be seen to generalize to new positive reinforcerssince these also will elicit the respondentresponses and their characteristic stimuli which have become SD's for such behavior. This content downloaded from 129.93.16.3 on Sun, 29 Sep 2013 15:16:04 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions CriminalBehavior 141 behaviorsuponwhichtheyare contin- of a grouparebyobserving reaction to that behavior, i.e., thesanctions gent.Basically,we are contending appliedto, thenatureof thereinforcer and or reinforcement conand punishment system the reinforcement are sequencesof, such behavior.We may contingencies of individualand also learnwhat a group'snormsare crucialdeterminants a de- throughverbalor writtenstatements. group behavior.Consequently, of an individual'sor group's The individualgroup memberalso scription of learnswhat is and is not acceptable and an understanding reinforcers, theprinciples af- behavioron the basis of verbalstatebywhichreinforcers fect behavior,would be expectedto ments made by others,as well as yielda greatdeal of knowledgeabout throughthe sanctions(i.e., the reinindividualandgroupdeviantbehavior. forcingor aversivestimuli)appliedto which his behavior(and othernormviolaFinally,the rationalizations withregardto trust tors) byothers. Cresseyidentifies violatorsand the peculiarextensions Behaviortheoryspecifiesthe place statements and sanctions of "defensesto crimes"or "techniques of normative of neutralization" by which deviant in the dynamicsof acquiring"conas identified behavioris justified, by forming"or "normative"behavior. Sykesand Matza,49maybe analyzedas Just as the behaviorand even the of the individoperantbehaviorsof the escape or physicalcharacteristics avoidancetypewhichare maintained ual mayservediscriminative functions, of avoid- verbal behavior,and this includes becausetheyhave the effect that normative can be analyzed statements, ing or reducingthe punishment statement can be comesfromsocialdisapproval by one- as SD's. A normative self as well as by others.We may, analyzedas an SD indicating thatthe of a groupoughttobehavein rewritethis propositionto members therefore, read: IV. The learningof criminalbe- a certainwayin certaincircumstances. behaviorwould be havior,includingspecifictechniques, Such "normative" is developedand maintained and avoidanceprocedures, attitudes, bysocialreAs we observedin the and available inforcement. a function oftheeffective and the existingreinforce-Ayllon-Azrin reinforcers, study51of instructions and reinforcement such mentcontingencies. contingencies, verbal behaviorwould not maintain of motives anyparticular V. "The specificdirection class of behaviorsif it and drivesis learnedfromdefinitionswerenotat leastoccasionally backedby of thelegal codesas favorableor un- reinforcement Extending consequences. favorable." theiranalysis, an individualwouldnot "conform"to a normif he did not In thisproposition, Sutherland apat leastin part, have a past historyof reinforcement pearsto be referring, behavior.This to the concept"norm"whichmaybe for such conforming forearlierwe statedthat madebya num- is important, definedas a statement ber of the membersof a group,not we canlearna greatdealabouta group whattheeffective reinforcor byknowing all of them,prescribing necessarily are the ers behaviors and which upon at certain certainbehaviors proscribing are contingent. We maynow say they norms what the We infer often times.5? thatwe can learna greatdeal about 49 Cressey, Other People's Money, op. an individual'sor a group'sbehavior not cir., pp. 93-138. G. M. Sykes and David whenwe are able to specify, only Matza, "Techniques of Neutralization: A whatthe effective reinforcers are,but Theory of Delinquency," American Sociological Review, 22 (December, 1957), pp. 664-670. 50 George C. Homans, Social Behavior: Its ElementaryForms,New York: Harcourt, Brace and World, 1961. 51 Ayllon-Azrin,1964, op. cit. This content downloaded from 129.93.16.3 on Sun, 29 Sep 2013 15:16:04 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 142 SOCIAL PROBLEMS also what the rulesor normsare by The specificclass of behaviorswhich whichthesereinforcers are applied.52 are learnedand theirfrequencyof are a functionof the reinFor thesetwotypesof knowledge will occurrence and availtellus muchaboutthetypesof behav- forcerswhichare effective ior thattheindividualwill developor able, and therulesor normsbywhich are applied. the typesof behaviorsthatare domi- thesereinforcers nantin a group. Forexample,ithas oftenbeennoted VI. "A person becomes delinquent thatmostofficial actsarecom- because of an excess of definitions criminal favorableto violationof law over of minority mittedbymembers groups definitions to violationof unfavorable who live in slums.One distinguishing law." characteristic of a slumis thehighlevel of deprivation social ofmanyimportant This propositionis generallyconthereinforcers. thissituation sideredthe heartof Sutherland's Exacerbating is thefactthatthesepeople,in contrast ory; it is the principleof differential to othergroups,lack the behavioral association.It followsdirectlyfrom to producerein- proposition necessary V, and we mustnow refer repertoires forcement in theprescribed In proposiways.They back to thatproposition. have not been and are not now ade- tion V, the use of the preposition for lawfulor nor- "from"in the phrase,"learnedfrom quatelyreinforced mativebehavior. Andas we knowfrom definitions of thelegal codesas favormistheLaw of OperantReinforcement, is somewhat a able or unfavorable," reinforcer will increasethe rate of leading.The meaninghere is not so occurrence of anyoperantwhichpro- muchthatlearningresultsfromthese ducesit. Furthermore, we would pre- definitions as it is thattheyformpart dictthatgivena largenumberof indi- of thecontent of one'slearning, detervidualsundersimilarconditions, one'sbehavior they miningwhichdirection are likelyto behavein similarways. willgo in relation to thelaw,i.e.,lawWithinsuch groups,manyformsof abidingor lawbreaking. of the law make These definitions social reinforcement maybecomeconwhich lawbreaking or seemeitherappropriate tingent uponclassesofbehaviors are outsidethelargersociety'snorma- inappropriate. Those definitions which tive requirements. Norms and legal place lawbreaking in a favorablelight stimuli,will in a sense can be seen as essentially codes, as discriminative onlycontrolthebehaviorof thosewho normsof evasionand/ornormsdihaveexperienced theappropriate learn- rectlyconflicting with conventional If an individualhas been, norms.Theyare, as Sykesand Matza ing history. forsuch"normative" and Cresseynote,"techniques andis,reinforced of neuor "verbehavior,thatbehaviorwill be main- tralization," "rationalizations," If he has notbeen, balizations"whichmake criminalbetainedin strength. for such haviorseem"all right"or justified, and is not now reinforced or behaviorstheywouldbe weak,if they which providedefensesagainstselfat all. And, reproach and disapproval from existedin his repertoire the reinforcement system others.53The principleof negative importantly, mayshapeand maintainanotherclass of behaviorswhichdo resultin rein- 53 Sykes and Matza, op. cit., Cressey, OtherPeople's Money, op. cit., pp. 93-138; forcement and suchbehaviorsmaybe Donald R. Cressey,"The DifferentialAssodeviantor criminal considered byother ciation Theory and Compulsive Crimes," of the group.Thus we may Journalof CriminalLaw, Criminologyand members to read: V. Police Science, 45 (May-June,1954), pp. thisproposition formulate 29-40; Donald R. Cressey,"Social Psycho52 Staats and Staats,op. cit. logical Foundationsfor Using Criminalsin the Rehabilitationof Criminals," Journal This content downloaded from 129.93.16.3 on Sun, 29 Sep 2013 15:16:04 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions CriminalBehavior 143 reinforcement would be of majorsig- of a groupbymakingvariousformsof such as social nificance in theacquisition and mainte- social reinforcement, nanceof such behaviors. and statuscontingent approval,esteem, This analysissuggeststhat it may upon thatbehavior. not be an "excess" of one kind of The concept"excess" in the statedefinition overanotherin thesenseof ment,"excessof definitions favorable a cumulativeratio,but ratherin the to violationof law," has beenparticusense of the relativeamountof dis- larlyresistant to operationalization. A criminative stimulusvalue of one set translation of thisconceptin termsof of verbalizations or normativestate- modernbehaviortheory wouldinvolve consementsover another.As we suggested the "balance"of reinforcement in the last section,normativestate- quences,positiveand negative.The is Reinforcement mentsare, themselves, behaviorsthat Law of Differential are a function of reinforcement conse- crucialhere.That is, a personwould quences.They,in turn,mayserveas engagein thosebehaviorsfor which mosthighlyin discriminative stimuliforotheroperant he had beenreinforced behaviors(verbaland nonverbal).But the past. (The readermayrecallthat recallthatreinforcement mustbe forth- in theAyllon-Azrin studywithschizoit was foundthatthepatients beforea phrenics, coming,at leastoccasionally, verbal statementcan continueas a selectedandperformed thosebehaviors discriminative stimulus. Bear in mind, whichprovidedthe most reinforcers was availablefor also, thatbehaviormayproducerein- whenreinforcement beeven in the ab- morethanone response.)Criminal forcingconsequences sence of any accompanying verbal haviorwould,then,occurunderthose conditionswhere an individualhas statements. for such In otherterms, a personwillbecome been mosthighlyreinforced andtheaversive consequences delinquentif the officialnorms or behavior, laws do not performa discriminativecontingentupon the behaviorhave functionand thereby control"norma- beenof sucha naturethattheydo not tive" or conformingbehavior.We performa "punishment function."54 know fromthe Law of DifferentialThis leadsus to a discussion of propoletus reformulate Reinforcement thatthatoperantwhich sitionVII. But,first, will the sixth propositionto read: VI. producesthe mostreinforcement becomedominantif it resultsin rein- Criminalbehavioris a functionof forcement. Thus, if lawful behavior normswhich are discriminative for the criminalbehavior,the learning of did not resultin reinforcement, strengthof the behaviorwould be whichtakesplace whensuchbehavior weakened,and a stateof deprivation 54 This, then, is essentiallydifferential would result,whichwould, in turn, reinforcement as Jefferypresents it. We increasethe probability thatotherbe- have attemptedto show how this is conhaviorswould be emittedwhich are gruent with differentialassociation. Furignoresthe key concepts ther,while Jeffery and such behaviorswould of reinforced, 'definitions"and "excess" we have inbe strengthened. And,of course,these corporated them into the reformulation. behaviors, thoughcommonto one or These definitions,viewed as verbalizations, moregroups,maybe labelleddeviant become discriminativestimuli; and "exAndsuchbehavior cess" operatesto produce criminalbehavior bythelargersociety. two relatedways: (1) verbalizationsconthemselves, patterns, mayacquirecon- in ducive to law violation have greater disvalue and, subse- criminativestimulusvalue than other verditionedreinforcing quently,be enforcedby the members balizations,and (2) criminalbehavior has of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 2 (July,1965), pp. 45-59. See revisedpropositionIV. been more highly reinforcedand has produced fewer aversive outcomes than has law abiding behavior in the conditioning historyof the individual. This content downloaded from 129.93.16.3 on Sun, 29 Sep 2013 15:16:04 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 144 SOCIAL PROBLEMS than nonis more highlyreinforced duration,and Priority,frequency, criminalbehavior. of associationwith criminal intensity and groupsare important to VII. "Differentialassociationsmay persons theextentthattheyinsurethatdeviant duration,priority,behaviorwill receivegreateramounts varyin frequency, and intensity." of reinforcement at morefrequentinIn terms of ouranalysis, theconcepts tervalsor with a higherprobability behavior.But the duration,and priorityare than conforming frequency, and amountof probability, straightforward enough.The concept frequency, are thecrucialelements. could be operationalized to reinforcement intensity designatethe numberof the individ- This meansthatit is thecomingunder of reinual's positiveand negativereinforcersthe controlof contingencies thatselectively anotherindividualor groupcontrols, forcement producesthe as well as the reinforcement value of criminal definitionsand behavior. letus rewrite thatindividual or group.As previously Consequently, thispropothegroupwhichcanmediate sitionto read: VII. The strength suggested of themostpositivereinforcers andwhich criminalbehavioris a directfunction has the mostreinforcement and probavalue, as of theamount,frequency, well as access to a largerrange of bilityof its reinforcement. aversivestimuli,will exertthe most controlover an individual'sbehavior. IX. "While criminalbehavioris an of generalneedsandvalues, There is a good reasonto suspect, expression was not so it is not explainedby thosegeneral however,thatSutherland muchreferring to differential associa- needs and values since noncriminal of thesame tionswithotherpersons, as differentialbehavioris an expression associations withcriminalpatterns. If needsand values." this suppositionis correct,then this In thisproposition, Sutherland may can be clarified byrelating have beenreacting, proposition at leastin part,to it to differential of rein- the controversy contingencies the concept regarding forcement rather thandifferential social "need."This controversy is nowessenassociations. Fromthisperspective, the tiallyresolved.For, we have finally evidencewithregardto come to the realizationthat "needs" experimental thevariousschedulesof reinforcement areunobservable, fictional hypothetical, is of majorimportance. Therearethree inner-causal agentswhichwereusually aspectsof the schedulesof reinforce-inventedon thespotto providespurimentwhichare of particularimpor- ous explanationsof some observable tancehere: (1) the amountof rein- behavior. Futhermore,they were forcement: the greaterthe amountof inferredfrompreciselythe same bethehighertheresponse haviortheyweresupposedto explain. reinforcement, of reinforce- While we can ignorethe reference rate; (2) the frequency mentwhichrefersto the numberof to needs, we must discuss values. reinforcements per giventimeperiod: Values may be seen as reinforcers the shorterthe timeperiod between whichhavesaliencefora number ofthe thehighertheresponse membersof a group or society.We reinforcements, of rein- agreewithSutherland rate;and (3) theprobability to theextent that whichis the reciprocalof he meansthatthenatureof thesegenforcement thelower responses perreinforcement: the ratioof responsesper reinforce-sis of Behavior (October, 1962), pp. 543ment,thehighertherateof response."55597. Because the emission of a fixed ratio or variable ratio of responses requires a 55 R. T. Kelleher and L. R. Gollub, "A period of time, the rate of respondingwill Review of Positive Conditioned Reinforce- indirectlydeterminethe frequencyof rement,"Journalof the ExperimentalAnaly- inforcement. This content downloaded from 129.93.16.3 on Sun, 29 Sep 2013 15:16:04 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions CriminalBehavior 145 eralreinforcers we haveseenthattheprinciple do notnecessarily deter- process, reinforcement is of crumine which behavior they will of differential elseof cial importance.But we must also strengthen. Money,orsomething will reinforce attendto a thirdquestion,namely, generalvalue in society, anybehaviorthatproducesit. This re- what sustainsthe patternor continWe onlyhave inforcement may depend upon non- gencyof reinforcement? criminalbehavior,but it also maybe- hintedat someof thepossiblyimporcomecontingent upona setofbehaviors tant variables.We have mentioned thatare labelledas criminal.Thus,if briefly, for example,structural factors of a can be interpreted Sutherland as mean- such as the level of deprivation be- particulargroup with regardto iming thatcriminaland noncriminal and thelack havior cannotbe maintainedby the portantsocialreinforcers, of "lawful" reinforcement same set of reinforcers, we mustdis- of effective failure and theconcomitant agree.However,it maybe thatthere behavior56 to the behavioral are certainreinforcing develop appropriate consequences to producereinforcement whichonlycriminal behaviorwill pro- repertoires We have also suggested that duce, for the behaviorfinallyshaped legally.57 will dependupon the reinforcer that those behaviorswhich do resultin is effective forthe individual.Never- reinforcement gain may, themselves, value and be enforced notthe reinforcement theless,it is thereinforcement, natureof thereinforcer, of thegroupthrough which by themembers specific of variousformsof explainstherateand formof behavior. the manipulation But since this issue revolvesaround socialreinforcement suchas socialapof reinforcement which provalandstatus, contingencies contingent uponsuch are handledelsewhere, we will elimi- behaviors.58 In short,new normsmay natethislastproposition. delindevelopandthesemaybe termed the larger society. by quent CONCLUDING REMARKS Therearemanyothertopicsthatare The purposeof thispaperhas been of directrelevanceto the problemof the applicationof the principlesof deviantbehaviorwhichwe have not modernbehavior to Sutherland's beenable to discussgiventherequiretheory differential associationtheory.While mentsof space.For instance, no menSutherland'stheoryhas had an en- tionhas beenmadeof someoutstandin theareaofpunishment. during effectupon the thinkingof ingresearch ofcriminal students ithas,till This topic is, of course,of prime behavior, in theareaof crimeprevennow, undergoneno major theoreticalimportance someof thisresearch revisiondespitethefactthattherehas tion.To illustrate been a steadyand cumulative growth and its relevance,it has been found thattheamountof bein the experimental findingsof the experimentally of learning. havior suppressionproducedby reprocesses There are threeaspectsof deviant 56 RobertK. Merton,Social Theory and to behaviorwhichwe have attempted Social Structure,Glencoe, Ill.: The Free deal with simultaneously, but which Press, pp. 161-195. For a more complete shouldbe separated.First,how does discussionof social structurein termsrelean individualbecomedelinquent,or vant to this paper, see Robert L. Burgess and Don Bushell,Jr.,Behavioral Sociology, how does he learndelinquentbehav- Parts IV and V, forthcoming, 1967. ior? Second,whatsustainsthisdelin57 Ibid., and Richard A. Cloward, "Il? We haveattempted to legitimate Means, Anomie, and Deviant quentbehavior describethe waysin whichthe prin- Behavior," American Sociological Review, 1959), pp. 164-177. ciples of modernbehaviortheoryare 2458(April, Albert K. Cohen, Delinquent Boys; to thedevelopment relevant and main- The Culture of the Gang, Glencoe, Ill.: tenanceof criminalbehavior.In the The Free Press, 1955 This content downloaded from 129.93.16.3 on Sun, 29 Sep 2013 15:16:04 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 146 SOCIAL PROBLEMS TABLE 1 A DIFFERENTIAL ASSOCIATION-REINFORCEMENT THEORY OF CRIMINAL BEHAVIOR Sutherland's Statements Statements Reformulated 1. Criminalbehavioris learnedaccording to the principlesof operantconditioning. 1. "Criminalbehavioris learned." 8. "The processof learningcriminalbehaviorby association withcriminal and anti-criminal patternsinvolvesall of themechanisms thatareinvolvedin any otherlearning." 2. "Criminalbehavioris learnedin inter- 2. Criminalbehavioris learnedboth in thatare reinforcing nonsocialsituations actionwithotherpersonsin a process and throughthatsoor discriminative of communication." in whichthe behavior cial interaction or disof otherpersonsis reinforcing forcriminalbehavior. criminative 3. "The principalpartof the learningof 3. The principalpart of the learningof occursin thosegroups criminal behavior criminalbehavioroccurswithinintiwhichcomprisethe individual'smajor matepersonalgroups." sourceof reinforcements. 4. "When criminalbehavioris learned, 4. The learningof criminalbehavior,inthelearningincludes(a) techniques of cluding specifictechniques,attitudes, is a function and avoidanceprocedures, the crime,whichare somecommitting andavailablereinforcers, of theeffective sometimes timesverycomplicated, very continand the existingreinforcement simple; (b) the specificdirectionof and motives,drives, rationalizations, gencies. attitudes." of motivesand 5. The specificclass of behaviorswhich 5. "The specificdirection of ocare learnedand theirfrequency drivesis learnedfromdefinitions of the ofthereinforcers area function or unfavorable." currence legalcodesas favorable and available,and whichare effective the rulesor normsby whichthesereare applied. inforcers ofnorms is a function behavior because 6. Criminal 6. "A personbecomesdelinquent for criminal which are discriminative to of an excessof definitions favorable violationof law over definitions behavior,the learningof whichtakes unto violationof law." favorable place when such behavioris more bethannoncriminal highlyreinforced havior. of criminalbehavioris a associationsmay varyin 7. The strength 7. "Differential oftheamount, directfunction and intenfrequency, duration, priority, frequency, of its reinforcement. and probability sity." behavioris an expres- 9. (Omit fromtheory.) 9. "While criminal sion of generalneedsand values,it is not explainedby thosegeneralneeds behavior and values since noncriminal of thesameneedsand is an expression values." thatif an aversivestimuliis a more,it has beendiscovered sponse-contingent of the aversivestimulusis repeatedly of the intensity directfunction paired butthata mildaver- withpositivereinforcement, and reinaversivestimulus, is not availableotherwise, sive stimulusmayproducea dramatic forcement if it is paired the aversivestimulusmay becomea behavior-suppression for an alternative discriminative withreinforcement stimulus(SD) forreinnot deand, consequently, and incompatiblebehavior.Further- forcement This content downloaded from 129.93.16.3 on Sun, 29 Sep 2013 15:16:04 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions CriminalBehavior 147 can be atassociation crease the behavior'sfrequencyof withdifferential occurrence. tributedto its scoringlow on these Thereare, in conclusion, numerous criteria, especially(1) and (3). We criteria thathavebeenusedto evaluate submitthat the reformulated theory theories. One suchsetis as follows: hereanswerssomeof these presented (1) The amount of empirical support problemsand bettermeets each of for the theory'sbasic propositions. these criteria.It is our contention, thatthereformulated theory (2) The "power" of the theory,i.e., the moreover, amount of data that can be derived not only specifies the conditions fromthe theory'shigher-order prop- under which criminal behavior is ositions. learned,but also some of the condiin (3) The controllingpossibilities of the tionsunderwhichdeviantbehavior theory,including (a) whether the generalis acquired.Finally,whilewe theory's propositions are, in fact, have not statedour propositionsin causal principles,and (b) whether axiomaticform,a close examithe theory'spropositionsare stated strictly in such a way thattheysuggestpos- nationwillrevealthateachof thelater sible practical applications. followfrom,modify,or propositions What dissatisfaction therehas been clarifyearlierpropositions. SANCTIONS* JACK P. GIBBS StateUniversity Washington the concept Few conceptsin sociologyhave Despite its importance, wider applicationthan sanction,if sanctionremainsambiguousand its probpresentsa formidable onlybecauseit entersintothe notion definition of norms and related distinctionslem. Thereare few formaltreatments treat (e.g., laws versuscustoms).Giventhe of theconcept,and manywriters term.Leaving conceptuallinkbetweensanctionsand sanctionas a primitive norms,it followsthat the definitionthe conceptundefined impliesthatits of crimeor deviantbehaviorand the meaningis generally and understood, of relatedfieldsrequire the assumptionis by no means undelimitation a formaldefiniEvenwithout to sanctions. The importancejustified. reference would agreethat in tion,mostobservers of sanctionsis no less conspicuous on so- the executionof a felonor settinga substantive theory, particularly offenserepresents a cialorder.As a casein point,verylittle finefor a traffic remainsif thiselementis deletedfrom sanction.Nonetheless, the practiceof undefined has certain Hobbesiantheory;and,withreference leavingsanctions theoretical to contemporary issues,the much as reciprocityand consensusas bases school is distinguishedof social order.This is particularlytrue for functionalist school in termsof, Malinowski. For criticismof Malinowski fromthe conflict on this point, see E. Adamson Hoebel, interalia, emphasison sanctions.1 The Law Primitive * Some parts of this paper were written in connectionwith a Russell Sage fellowship for the studyof law. 1 On the whole, functionalistsdo not emphasize formal punitive sanctions as of MAlan,Cambridge: Harvard UniversityPress, 1954, pp. 190210; and William Seagle, "PrimitiveLaw and ProfessorMalinowski," American Anthropologist,39 (April-June, 1937), pp. 275-290. This content downloaded from 129.93.16.3 on Sun, 29 Sep 2013 15:16:04 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions