Download A Differential Association-Reinforcement Theory of

A Differential Association-Reinforcement Theory of Criminal Behavior
Author(s): Robert L. Burgess and Ronald L. Akers
Source: Social Problems, Vol. 14, No. 2 (Autumn, 1966), pp. 128-147
Published by: University of California Press on behalf of the Society for the Study of Social Problems
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128
SOCIAL PROBLEMS
or unexpected.
Theybecome dence on the factorsthat may insurprising
moremeaningful
wheninterpreted
in fluencetheprocessof decisionmaking
thelightof studiesof therelationship bythehospitalpreadmission
But
staff.
withvariousstaffmembers
betweensocial class and psychiatricdiscussions
treatment
and hospitalization.
of this
suggestthatan understanding
It was notpossiblewithinthescope processis crucialwhenaccounting
for
evi- thedifferential
of thisstudyto gathersystematic
speedofhospitalization.
A DIFFERENTIAL ASSOCIATION-REINFORCEMENT
THEORY OF CRIMINAL BEHAVIOR
ROBERT L. BURGESS AND RONALD L. AKERS
University
of Washington
pirical test or thoroughrestatement
own revisionin
that beyondSutherland's
In spiteof thebodyof literature
aroundthedifferential1947. Recognizingthatthe theoryis
has accumulated
a learningtheory,Sutherassociationtheoryof criminalbehav- essentially
it to stateexplicitly
landrephrased
that
crucial
emreceive
to
it
has
yet
ior,1
criminal
behavioris learnedas anybe1 By 1960, Cressey had collected a 70- havioris learned.In Cressey's
two reitem bibliographyon the theory; see Ed- visionsof thetextbook,
thetheory
has
win H. Sutherlandand Donald R. Cressey, been deliberately
leftunchangedfrom
of
ed.,
Chicago:
Principles Criminology,6th
revision.
Thus,thetheory
J. B. LippincottCo., 1960, p. vi. He has Sutherland's
presentedan exhaustivereview of the mis- as it standsnow is postulatedupon
taken notions, criticisms, attempted re- theknowledge
of thelearningprocess
formulations,and empirical tests of the extant20-25
years
ago.2
literain
a
of
sizable
contained
body
theory
neverwas able
Sutherland,
himself,
ture. Donald R. Cressey, "Epidemiology
and Individual Conduct: A Case from to testdirectly
or findspecificempiriCriminology,"PacificSociological Review, 3 cal supportforhis theory,
buthe was
(Fall, 1960), pp. 47-58. For more recent convincedthat the
theory
two-edged
literature see Donald R. Cressey, "The
association
genetic,differential
Theory of DifferentialAssociation: An In- -(1)
differential
social
troduction,"Social Problems, 8 (Summer, and (2) structural,
INTRODUCTION
1960), pp. 2-5. James F. Short,Jr., "DifferentialAssociationas a Hypothesis:Problems of Empirical Testing," Social Problems, 8 (Summer,1960), pp. 14-25. Henry
D. McKay, "DifferentialAssociation and
CrimePrevention:Problemsof Utilization,"
Social Problems,8 (Summer,1960), pp. 2537. Albert J. Reiss, Jr., and A. Lewis
Rhodes, "An EmpiricalTest of Differential
Association Theory," The Journal of Research in Crimeand Delinquency,1 (January,1964), pp. 5-18. Harwin L. Voss, "DifferentialAssociation and Reported Delinquent Behavior: A Replication," Social
Problems, 12 (Summer, 1964), pp. 78-85.
Siri Naess, "ComparingTheories of Criminogenesis," The Journal of Research in
Crimeand Delinquency,1 (July,1964), pp.
171-180. C. R. Jeffery,
"Criminal Behavior
and Learning Theory," The Journal of
CriminalLaw, Criminologyand Police Science, 56 (September,1965), pp. 294-300.
2 The originalformalstatementappeared
in Edwin H. Sutherland, Principles of
Criminology,3rd ed., Philadelphia: J. B.
LippincottCo., 1939, pp. 4-8. The terms,
systematic"and "consistency"along with
some statementsreferringto social disorganizationand culture conflictwere deleted in the revised theory.Two sentences
stating that criminal behavior is learned
were added and the terms "learned" and
"learning"were includedin othersentences.
The modalities of duration,priority,and
intensitywere added. The revisedtheoryis
in Sutherland and Cressey, op. cit., pp.
77-79. For Cressey's discussion of why he
left the theoryin its 1947 form see ibid.,
p. vi.
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CriminalBehavior
129
fortheknown
organization-accounted
Suggestedtheoreticalmodifications
data on the full rangeof crimes,in- have not been lacking,but the diffiis that
cluding conventionalviolationsand cultywith these restatements
white-collar
crimes.3The theoryhas theyare no morereadilyoperationalOne recent
receivedsomeotherempirical
support,4 ized than Sutherland's.6
but negativecases have also been paper,however,
byDeFleurand Quinfound.5The attemptsto subjectthe ney,7 offersnew promise that the
testare markedby theorycan be adequatelyoperationaltheoryto empirical
inconsistent
findingsboth withinthe ized. They have presenteda detailed
same studyand betweenstudies,as strategy
formakingspecific
deductions
well as by highlycircumscribed
and for empiricaltesting.But while they
theproblemsin thederqualified findingsand conclusions. haveclarified
Whethertheparticular
con- ivation and generationof testable
researcher
cludesthathis findings
do or do not hypothesesfrom differential
associaseemto supportthe theory,
validanearlyall tion,theystillsee its empirical
haveindicated
in operational- tion as a verydifficult,
difficulty
thoughnot
that impossibletask.
and recommend
izingtheconcepts
the theorybe modifiedin sucha way
Regardlessof the particularcritithatit becomesmoreamenableto em- cisms,the exceptionstaken,and the
piricaltesting.
difficulties
involvedin testingand rethetheory
thathavebeen
3 Ibid., pp. 77-80. Edwin H. Sutherland, formulating
White Collar Crime, New York: Holt, offered,few take exceptionto the
Rinehartand Winston, 1961, pp. 234-256 centrallearningassumptions
in differ(originallypublished 1949). See also Cres- ential association.If we accept the
sey's Foreword,"ibid., p. x.
basic assumption
thatcriminalbehav4 John C. Ball, "Delinquent and NonDelinquent Attitudes Toward the Preva- ior is learnedby the same processes
as
lence of Stealing,"The Journalof Criminal and involvesthe same mechanisms
and Police Science, 48 conforming
thenwe needto
Law, Crimnonology
behavior,
(September-October, 1957), pp. 259-274.
and makeuse of thecurrent
James F. Short, "DifferentialAssociation recognize
and Delinquency,"Social Problems,4, (Jan- knowledgeabout theseprocessesand
Neitherthe extantstateuary, 1957), pp. 233-239. Short, "Differ- mechanisms.
ential Associationwith Delinquent Friends mentof thetheory
northereformulaand Delinquent Behavior," Pacific Sociolo- tionsof it make
thenatureof
explicit
gical Review, 1 (Spring, 1958), pp. 20-25.
the
underlying
learning
process inShort, "DifferentialAssociation as a Hyassociation.In
pothesis," op. cit. Voss, op. cit. Donald R. volved in differential
of the short,no major revisionshave been
Cressey,"Applicationand Verification
DifferentialAssociationTheory,"The Jour- made
utilizing establishedlearning
nal of Criminal Law, Criminology and
Police Science, 43 (May-June,1952), pp. principles.
47-50. Cressey,OtherPeople's Money,GlenThat this typeof revisionof the
coe, Ill.: The Free Press,1953, pp. 147-149. theoryis neededhas been recognized
Glaser, op. cit., pp. 7-10.
and somecriticism
of differential
asso5 Marshall Clinard,
The Black Market,
New York: RinehartCo., 1952, pp. 285329. Marshall Clinard, "Rural Criminal
Offenders,"AmericanJournalof Sociology,
6 See Daniel Glaser, "CriminalityTheories and Behavioral Images," American
50 (July, 1944), pp. 38-45. Edwin M.
Journalof Sociology,61 (March, 1956), pp.
Lemert,"An Isolation and Closure Theory 433-444. Glaser, "DifferentialAssociation
of Naive Check Forgery,"The Journal of and Criminological Prediction," op. cit.,
Criminal Law, Criminology and Police pp. 10-13. Naess, op. cit., pp. 174-179.
? Melvin DeFleur and Richard Quinney,
Science,44, (September-October,
1953), pp.
293-307. Reiss and Rhodes, op. cit. Cressey, "A Reformulationof Sutherland'sDifferen"Application and Verificationof the Dif- tial Association Theory and a Strategyfor
ferentialAssociation Theory," op. cit., pp. EmpiricalVerification,"Journalof Research
51-52. Cressey,Other People's Money, op. in Crime and Delinquency, 3 (January,
cit., pp. 149-151. Glaser, op. cit.,pp. 12-13. 1966), p. 13.
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130
SOCIAL
PROBLEMS
ciationhas revolvedaroundthe fact
thatit does notadequately
the
portray
processby whichcriminalbehavioris
learned.But as Cresseyexplains:
While sociologists
knowa greatdeal
aboutthestructure
of theenvironment
fromwhichdeviantscome,we know
variaverylittleaboutthedetermining
withinthisenvironment.
It is one thingto criticise
thetheory
for blesoperating
theory
failureto specify
thelearning
processac- The burdenof criminological
curatelyand anotherto specifywhich today is to combineknowledgeof
aspectsof thelearning
processshouldbe structural
pressureswithexplanations
includedand in whatway.8
of "whyonlysomeof thepersonson
of course,was as inter- whomthispressureis exertedbecome
Sutherland,
estedin explaining
the"epidemiology" non-conformists."1'
It is forthisreasonthatthe recent
of crimeas in explaining
how theinto re-examine
by C. R. Jeffery
dividualcomesto engagein behavior effort
in violationof thelaw and insisted
that differential
associationin light of
the two explanations
mustbe consis- modernlearningtheorymarksa new
in theabundanceof thinking
tent.9Differential
social organization departure
the
(normative
conflict)has beensuccess- and writingthathas characterized
fulin "makingsense"of variations
in intellectualhistoryof this theory,.2
crimerates.But differential
axiomatizaassociation In spite of theirintricate
has been less successful
in explicating tion of the theory,DeFleur and
the processby whichthis differentialQuinney,for example,recognizethat
organization
producesindividual
crimi- even they have left the learning
associationunThis
seems
to
be
not
to
due
the processin differential
nality.
But, theynote,"modernreof associations
for specified.
lack of importance
criminalbehaviorbut:
inforcement
learning theorywould
.
handle this problem
This is
'."1
out... ratherto thefactthatthetheory
what
precisely
Jeffery
proposedto do
ran the capacityof eitherpsychology
or
socialpsychology
to giveadequate,scien- and to theextentthatthisobjectiveis
tificanswers
to thequestionof whythere servedby discussinglearningtheory
are such qualitative(selective) differ- and criminalbehaviortogether,
he is
encesin humanassociation.io
at leastpartiallysuccessful.
However,
does not in factmakeit clear
It now appears,however,
thatthere Jeffery
differential
assois a bodyof verified
theorywhichis justhow Sutherland's
maybe revised.His exadequateto thetaskof accurately
speci- ciationtheory
differential
refyingthis process.Modern learning planationincorporates
theoryseemscapableof providingin- inforcement:
sights into the problemof uniting
actoccursin an en-. [A] criminal
structuraland genetic formulations. vironment
in whichin thepasttheactor
has beenreinforced
forbehavingin this
8 Cressey,"Epidemiologyand Individual
manner, and the aversive consequences
attached to the behavior have been of
Conduct,"op. cit., p. 54.
such a nature that they do not control
9 Sutherlandand Cressey,op. cit., p. 80.
or preventthe resoonse.14
Albert K. Cohen, Alfred R. Lindesmith,
and Karl F. Schuessler(eds.), The Sutherland Papers, Bloomington: Indiana Uni- This statement,
as it stands,bearsno
versityPublications,Social Science Series, obviousor directrelationto SutherNo. 15, 1956, pp. 5-42. That Sutherland land's differential
and noassociation,
intended an explanation of the two-fold
makeit clear
problem of rates of crime and individual whereelse does Jeffery
criminal behavior is, of course, the basic
11 Cressey,"The Theory of Differential
point of Cressey's paper, "Epidemiology
and Individual Conduct," op. cit.
Association," op. cit., p. 5.
12 Jeffery,
o10George B. Vold, Theoretical Crimiop. cit.
nology, New York: Oxford University
13 DeFleur and Quinney, op. cit., p. 3.
Press, 1958, p. 198.
14 Ibid., p. 295.
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CriminalBehavior
131
is a re- setof principles.
how differential
reinforcement
Theyenablethehanof differential
formulation
association. dlingof a greatvariety
of observational
evidenceabout
does discussmodernlearning as well as experimental
Jeffery
but he does not showhow humanbehavior.
principles,
theseprinciplesmay be incorporated It is thepurposeofthispapertotake
withinthe framework
of Sutherland's thefirststepin thedirection
to which
of the
nor how theseprinciplesmay Jeffery
theory,
points.A restatement
will
not an alternative
of past empirical theory,
lead to explanations
theory,
be presented,although,of necessity,
findings.
to differential
ideasnotintrinsic
Jeffery's
theoryand his discussion certain
will have to be introduced
of criminal
behaviorand learningthe- association
as and additionswill be made to the
oryremainsnot so muchincorrect
unconvincing.His presentationof original propositions.It should be
is supported
wholly pointedoutthatDeFleurand Quinney
learningprinciples
that
withlower have been able to demonstrate
to experiments
byreference
whenstated
to criminal Sutherland's
andhisextension
propositions,
organisms
behavioris mainlythroughanecdotal in theformof settheory,
appearto be
the
consistent.
material.
The potential internally
and illustrative
By arranging
in axiomatic
articleis propositions
value and impactof Jeffery's
form,stating
to them in logical ratherthan verbal
diminished
by not callingattention
thealreadylargeand growingbodyof symbols,
theyhave broughtthe theobehavioral reticalgrammarup to date.'5 Such
literaturein experimental
in thispaper,at
science,especiallyevidenceusing hu- is not our intention
man subjects,thathas directimplica- all. We recognizeand appreciatethe
tionsfordifferential
association
of statingthepropositions
theory. importance
fashion.We do
We are basicallyin agreement
with in a formal,deductive
that learningtheoryhas pro- feel,however,thatthistaskis, at the
Jeffery
to the more
gressedto the point whereit seems presenttime,subsidiary
associationcan urgenttask of: (1) makingexplicit
likelythatdifferential
in a moresophisticated
and the learningprocess,as it is now
be restated
testableformin thelanguageof mod- understood by modern behavioral
ern learningtheory.But thatrestate- science,fromwhichthe propositions
association can be
in a thorough of differential
mentmustbe attempted
fashionbeforewe can expectothersto derived;(2) fullyreformulating
the
statement
in light
beginsto do thisand theory,
acceptit. Jeffery
bystatement,
but they of thecurrent
his thoughtsare significant,
of thislearnknowledge
do nottakeintoaccountthetheoryas ing process;and (3) helpingcrimia whole.
becomeawareof theadvances
nologists
in in learning
research
The amountof empirical
andresearch
thatare
theory
the social psychologyof learning directly
relevantto an explanation
of
No claimis made
clearlyhas shownthattheconceptsin criminal
behavior.16
a finalstatement.
to oper- thatthisconstitutes
aresusceptible
learningtheory
ationalization.
Therefore,
applyingan If it has anyseminalvalueat all, that
to is, if it provokesa seriousnew look at
setof learningprinciples
integrated
associationtheoryshould
differential
15 DeFleur and Quinney, op. cit.
adequately
providetherevisionneeded
16 Our main concernhere, of course, is
for empiricaltesting.These learning with the nine statementsof the theoryas
thou- a genetic explanation of the process by
principlesare based on literally
hourscovering which the individual comes to engage in
sands of experimental
behavior. We do not lose sight of
scale illegal
a wide rangeof thephylogenetic
the fact, however, that this must be inteand morenearlyconstitute
empiricallygrated with explanations of the variation
thananyother and location of crime.
derivedlawsofbehavior
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132
SOCIAL PROBLEMS
thetheory
andencourages
further
thereare
effort Accordingto thistheory,
in this direction,our objectivewill two majorcategories
of behavior.On
have beenserved.
theone hand,thereis reflexive
or respondentbehaviorwhichis behavior
Associationand Modern that is governedby the stimulithat
Differential
BehaviorTheory
elicit it. Such behaviorsare largely
In thissectionthenineformalprop- associatedwiththe autonomicsystem.
ositionsin whichSutherland
expressed The workofPavlovis of specialsignifhis theorywill be analyzedin terms icancehere.On theotherhand,thereis
of behaviortheoryand researchand operantbehavior:behaviorwhichinExwill be reformulated
as seven new volvesthecentralnervoussystem.
amples of operantbehaviorinclude
propositions.
(See Table 1.)
verbalbehavior,playingball, driving
I. "Criminal
behavior
is learned."VIII. a car, and buyinga new suit. It has
"The processof learningcriminalbe- been foundthatthisclassof behavior
haviorbyassociation
withcriminal
and is a functionof its past and present
anti-criminal
patternsinvolvesall of environmentalconsequences.Thus,
the mechanisms
thatare involvedin whena particular
operantis followed
anyotherlearning."
by certainkindsof stimuli,that beof occurrence
will
frequency
Sinceboththefirstand eighthsen- havior's
increasein the future.These stimuli
tencesin the theoryobviouslyforma
stimulior reidea,it seemsbestto statethem are called reinforcing
unitary
and includefood, money,
together.Sutherlandwas aware that inforcers20
thesestatements
did notsufficiently
de- brain. However, most behavioral scientists
scribethelearningprocess,"7
butthese in this area are extremelycareful in hytwoitemsleaveno doubtthatdifferen-pothesizing interveningvariables or contial association
was meantto fit structs,whethertheyare egos, personalities,
theory
responsesets,or some sort of internalcominto a generalexplanationof human puters.
Generally they adopt the position
behaviorand, as muchis unambigu- thatthe only real value of a constructis its
remarks ability to improve one's predictions.If it
ouslystatedin the prefatory
of thetheory:
an "explanation
of crim- does not, then it must be excluded in accordancewith the rule of parsimony.
inal behaviorshouldbe a specific
part
20 It has been said by some that a tauof a generaltheoryof behavior."'s tologyis involvedhere.But thereis nothing
Modernbehaviortheoryas a general tautological about classifying events in
effects.As Skinner,op. cit.,
theory provides us with a good termsof their
has noted, this criterionis both
idea of whatthemechanisms
are that pp. 72-73,and
empirical
objective.There is only one
are involvedin theprocessof acquir- sure way of tellingwhetheror not a given
stimulus event is reinforcingto a given
ing behavior.'9
17 Cressey,1960, op. cit.,p. 54.
18 Sutherlandand Cressey,op. cit.,p. 75.
19 It should be mentionedat the outset
thatthereis more than one learningtheory.
The one we will employis called Behavior
Theory. More specifically,it is that variety
of behavior theorylargely associated with
the name of B. F. Skinner. (Science and
Human Behavior, New York: Macmillan,
1953.) It differsfromother learningtheories in thatit restrictsitselfto the relations
between observable, measurable behavior
and observable, measurable conditions.
There is nothingin this theorythat denies
the existence,or importance,or even the
inherentinterestof the nervous systemor
individual under given conditionsand that
is to make a direct test: observe the frequency of a selected behavior, then make
a stimulus event contingentupon it and
observe any change in frequency.If there
is a change in frequencythen we may
classifythe stimulus as reinforcingto the
individual under the statedconditions.Our
reasoningwould become circular,however,
if we went on to assertthata given stimulus
strengthensthe behavior because it is reinforcing. Furthermore,not all stimuli,
when presented,will increasethe frequency
of the behaviorwhichproducedthem.Some
stimuli will increase the frequencyof the
behavior which removes them, still others
will neither strengthennor weaken the
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CriminalBehavior
133
clothes,objectsof varioussorts,social ment. (3) A behaviormay produce
eventsand thereby
deand social certainstimulus
attention,
approval,affection
status.This entireprocessis called creasein frequency.
Such stimuliare
One distin- called aversivestimulior, more repositive reinforcement.
of operantbe- cently,punishers.21The entirebehavguishingcharacteristic
havioras opposedto respondent
behav- ioralprocessis calledpositivepunishior,then,is thatthelatteris a function ment.(4) A behaviormayremoveor
certainstimuluseventsand
of its antecedent
stimuli,whereasthe terminate
formeris a function
of its antecedent therebydecreasein frequency.Such
stimuliarepositivereinforcers
and the
environmental
consequences.
punishment.
Typically,operantand respondent processis termednegative
behaviorsoccurtogetherin an indi- (5) A behaviormayproduceor reeventswhichdo
vidual's everydaybehavior,and they movecertainstimulus
interactin extremely
intricateways. not changethe behavior'sfrequency
to fullyunderstand
any at all. Such stimuliare called neutral
Consequently,
set of patterned
theinvesti- stimuli.(6) A behavior
mayno longer
responses,
of the producecustomary
stimulus
eventsand
gatorshouldobservetheeffects
as well as therebydecreasein frequency.The
operantson therespondents
on the stimuliwhichareproducedareneutral
the effects
of the respondents
operants.The connectionsbetween stimuli,and the process,extinction.
stimulus
no longer
behaviorsare Whena reinforcing
operantand respondent
to increasethe futureprobcrucialto an analysisof atti- functions
especially
behaviors. abilityof thebehaviorwhichproduced
and conflict
tudes,emotional
conse- it,we saytheindividualis satiated.To
In everydaylife, different
of the
property
upon restorethereinforcing
quences are usuallycontingent
classesof behavior.This re- stimulus
different
we need onlydeprivetheinlationshipbetweenbehaviorand its dividualof it fora time.22
functions
to altertherate
The increasein thefrequency
of occonsequences
and formof behavioras well as itsre- currenceof a behaviorthat is reinof the en- forcedis the verypropertyof reinlationshipto manyfeatures
thatpermitsthefascinating
vironment.The process of operant forcement
is the most importantvarietyand subtletythat occur in
reinforcement
beprocessbywhichbehavioris generated operantas opposedto respondent
Thereare,in fact,six havior.Anotherprocessproducing
and maintained.
the
consequences varietywe see in behavioris thatof
possible environmental
relativeto theLaw of OperantBehav- conditioning.
When a primary
or unior. (1) A behaviormayproducecer- conditioned
stimulussuch
reinforcing
tain stimuluseventsand therebyin- as food is repeatedly
paired with a
the latterwill evencrease in frequency.As we have neutralstimulus,
indicatedabove,suchstimuliarecalled tuallyfunction
as a reinforcing
stimuof this
and the processis lus as well. An illustration
positivereinforcers
called positivereinforcement.
(2) A would be as follows. The milk a
behaviormay remove,avoid, or ter- motherfeedsto her infantis an unminate certainstimulusevents and conditioned
If the food is
reinforcer.
therebyincreasein frequency.Such
21 N. H. Azrin and D. F. Hake, "Constimuliare termednegativereinforcersditioned
Punishment,"Journal of the Exand the process,negativereinforce-perimentalAnalysis of Behavior, 8 (Septhem.See Robwhichproduced
behavior
RonaldL. Akers,"Are
ert L. Burgess,
?" The
OperantPrinciplesTautological
PsychologicalRecord, 16 (July, 1966), pp.
305-312.
tember,1965), pp. 279-293.
22 See Jacob L. Gewirtz and Donald M.
Baer, "Deprivation and Satiation of Social
Reinforcersas Drive Conditions," Journal
of Abnormal and Social Psychology,57,
1958, pp. 165-172.
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134
SocIAL PROBLEMS
the
differential
reinforcement,
repeatedly
pairedwithsocialattention,through
and approval,these latter child will eventually
only speak the
affection,
will eventually
becomereinforcing
as word "daddy" when his fatheris
will the motherherselfas a stimulus presentor in other"appropriate"
conobject. Later these conditionedrein- ditions.We maysay thatthe father,
can be usedto strengthen
other as a stimulusobject,functionsas a
forcers
behaviorsby makingthesereinforcersdiscriminative
stimulus(SD) setting
contingent
upon thosenew behaviors. the occasionfor the operantverbal
Differential
reinforcement
mayalso response"daddy"becausein the past
unaltertheformof a response.
This pro- suchbehaviorhas been reinforced
cess is calledshapingor responsedif- der suchconditions.
It has also been discovered
thatthe
It can be exemplified
by
ferentiation.
is
a childlearningto speak.At first,
the pattern
or scheduleof reinforcement
as the amountof reinparentwill reinforce
anyvocalization, as important
butas timewearson, and as thechild forcement.
For example,a fixed-interwhere
growsolder,the parentwill differen-val scheduleof reinforcement,
tiallyreinforceonly those responses a responseis reinforced
only aftera
whichsuccessfully
certain certainamountof time has passed,
approximate
criteria.
The childwill be seento pro- producesa lowerrateof responsethan
based
ceed frommeregruntsto "baby-talk" thatobtainedwithreinforcement
on a fixed-ratio
to articulate
schedulewherea respeech.23
Of course,organisms,
whetherpi- sponseis reinforced
onlyaftera certain
of responses
havealreadybeen
geons, monkeysor people, do not number
a responserateobusually go around behavingin all emitted.Similarly
scheduleis
possiblewaysat all possibletimes.In tainedwith a fixed-ratio
short,behaviordoes not occur in a lowerthanthatobtainedwitha varivacuum; a given behavioris appro- able-ratioschedule,where reinforceBy appro- mentoccursfor a certainproportion
priateto a givensituation.
has of responsesrandomlyvaried about
priatewe meanthatreinforcement
been forthcoming
only undercertain somecentralvalue.A scheduleof reinconditionsand it is underthesecon- forcement,
then,refersto theresponse
ditionsthatthe behaviorwill occur. contingencies
upon which reinforceIn otherwords,differential
reinforce-ment depends. All of the various
besides
theprobabilityschedulesof reinforcement,
mentnotonlyincreases
of a response,it also makesthatre- producinglawful responsecharacterrates,
sponsemoreprobableupon the recur- istics,producelawfulextinction
rence of conditionsthe same as or once reinforcement
is discontinued.
on an inbehaviorreinforced
similar to those that were present Briefly,
schedule takes longer to
Such termittent
duringpreviousreinforcements.
on
thanbehaviorreinforced
a processis calledstimuluscontrolor extinguish
schedule.
For example, a continuous
stimulusdiscrimination.
a childwhenhe is firsttaughtto say
of reinforceThis concept,
schedules
of which
"daddy"mayrepeatit whenanymale ment,is one theimplications
or even,in theverybegin- are littleunderstood
is present,
by manybehavso a few additional
ning,whenany adult is present.But ioral scientists,
wordsare in order.Firstof all, social
be
the
23 This seems to
processinvolved
are for the mostpart
in learning to become a marihuana user. reinforcements
One obvious resultof
By successive approximations, the user intermittent.
to extinction
learns (from others) to close on the ap- thisfactis theresistance
propriate techniques and effectsof using and satiationof much social behavmarihuana. See Howard S. Becker, Outior, desirableas well as undesirable.
siders, Glencoe, Ill.: The Free Press, 1963,
This is not peculiarto humansocial
pp. 41-58.
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CriminalBehavior
135
to it. These rebehavior,for even lower organisms have beenconditioned
seldom are faced with a continuous sponsesmay be competitive,
thatis,
schedule.Nevertheless,onlyone or theothercan occur.When
reinforcement
reinforcements
mediatedby another thisis so,theparticular
which
response
organismare probablymuchless reli- doesoccurmayalso dependuponother
stimulipresentin the
able than those produced by the discriminative
This is thecase situationthatcontrolonlyone or the
physicalenvironment.
becausesocial reinforcement
depends otherresponse.Finally,whilesomeof
upon behavioralprocessesin the rein- the stimulito whichan individualreforcerwhichare not undergood con- spondsemanatefromthe externalensocialand otherwise,
some
A moresubtle, vironment,
trolby the reinforcee.
im- comefromhis ownbehavior.An indimethodological,
thoughessentially
plicationof thisis thatbecausemost vidual is, then,not onlya sourceof
he is also a sourceof some
social behaviorsare maintainedby responses,
thatcaneffect
hisown
scheduleswhich stimuli-stimuli
complexintermittent
havebeenshapedovera longperiodof behavior.
time,a socialobserver,
newlyentering The mostgeneralbehavioralprina situation
mayhaveextreme
difficultyciple is the Law of OperantBehavior
in immediatelydeterminingexactly whichsaysthatbehavioris a function
a particular
behav- of its past and current
whatis maintaining
environmental
ior or set of behaviors.Nor can the consequences.
Therehavebeennumerindividualhimselfbe expectedto be ous studieswithchildren26
as well as
his own contingenciesadults27
able to identify
whichindicatethatindividual
of reinforcement.24
behaviorconformsto this law. Of
An important
aspectof thistheory muchmoreinterestto sociologists
is
of thegeneralways an experiment
is thepresentation
designedby Azrinand
that stimuli and responsescan be Lindsleyin 195628to investigate
coof operativesocial behavior.Theirstudy
formedintocomplexconstellations
events.Althoughthe demonstrated
stimulus-response
thatcooperative
behavior
aresimpleandmustbe couldbe developed,maintained,
basicprinciples
elimiseparatedto distinguishand study natedand reinstated
the
solelythrough
func- manipulation
them,in actuallifetheprinciples
of the contingency
beand consistof complex tweenreinforcing
tionin concert,
stimuliand the coSuch com- operativeresponse.This basic finding
arraysand constellations.25
plexitycan be seen in the fact that has receivedmuchsubsequent
support.
thatnot
single S-R eventsmay be combined It has also beendemonstrated
into sequenceson the basis of condi- only cooperativebehavior,but also
tioningprinciples.That is, responses competitive
behaviorand leadingand
to havestimulus
can be thought
properties.In addition,morethanone re26 See, for example, S. W. Bijou and P.
sponsemaycomeunderthecontrolof T. Sturges, "Positive Reinforcersfor Exa particular
stimulus.Thus,whenthe perimental Studies with Children-Constimulusoccurs,it will tendto set the sumables and Manipulatables," Child De30, 1959, pp. 151-170.
that velopment,
occasionforthevariousresponses
27
J. G. Holland, "Human Vigilance,"
Cressey encounteredthis problem in Science, 128, 1959, pp. 61-67; Harold
"ConditioningHistoryand Human
tryingto get trustviolators to reconstruct Weiner,
past associations. Cressey, Other People's Fixed-Interval Performance," Journal of
the Experimental Analysis of Behavior,
Money, op. cit., p. 149.
25 Arthur Staats, "An Integrated-Func- 7 (September,1964), pp. 383-385.
28 N. H. Azrin and O. R. Lindsley,"The
tional LearningApproach to Comolex Human Behavior," Technical Report 28, Con- Reinforcementof Cooperation Between
tract ONR and Arizona State University, Children," The Journal of Abnormal and
Social Psychology,52 (January,1956).
1965.
24
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136
SOCIAL
PROBLEMS
followingbehaviorare a functionof "normal" social behavior function
theirpastand presentconsequences. accordingto theLaw of OperantBeAnotherof thebehavioral
principles havior.But whatabout"deviant"bewe mentioned
wasthatof stimulus
dis- havior?Can we be sure thesesame
A discriminative
crimination.
stimulus principlesare operatinghere?Unforis a stimulusin thepresenceof which tunatelytherehave been no studies
a particular
operantresponseis rein- which attemptto test directlythe
forced.Muchof ourbehavior
has come relevance
of thesebehavioral
principles
underthe controlof certainenviron- to criminalbehavior.But therehave
socialstimuli
because been several experimental
mental,
including
investigain the past it has been reinforced
in tionsof deviantbehaviorsemittedby
the presenceof thosestimuli.In an mentalpatients.For example,in a
experimentby Donald Cohen,29a studybyAyllonand Michael,30it was
normal13-year-old
boy namedJustin, shown that the bizarrebehaviorsof
when placed under identicalexperi- psychoticsfunctionedaccordingto
mentalconditions
be- theselearningprinciples.In thisparemitted
different
haviorsdependingupon whetherhis ticularstudyvariousbehavioralprobwas his mother,
were cured"
sister, lemsofpsychotic
brother,
partner
patients
ora stranger.
The results
of this through
of reinforcethemanipulation
friend,
as
that Jus- mentcontingencies.
demonstrated
Suchprinciples
investigation
tin's social behaviorwas differentially
extinction,
negativeand positivereinwereeffectively
butit also forcement,
andsatiation
controlled
byreinforcement;
was dif- utilizedto eliminate
thathisbehavior
theunwantedbedemonstrated
ferent depending upon the social haviors.31
This studywas one of the
the firstexperimental
stimulipresent,thus reaffirming
testsof the contenbutalso
principleof stimulusdiscrimination.tionthatnotonlyconforming
In otherwords,thedynamic
or unproperties manyunusual,inappropriate,
of his social behavior,whetherco- desirablebehaviorsare shaped and
leadingor fol- maintainedthroughsocial reinforceoperative,
competitive,
Isaacs,
byhisprevious ment. In anotherexperiment
lowing,werecontrolled
historywith his Thomas, and Goldiamond3"2demonextra-experimental
teammates,
althoughthe experimenterstratethatcomplexadjustivebehaviors
could changethosebehaviorsby ex- can be operantly
in longconditioned
availalteringthecontingenciestermpsychotics
perimentally
bymanipulating
It is, of course,al- able reinforcers.
of reinforcement.
to saythatan individual In yet anotherinvestigation,33"
mosta truism
the
in the presenceof
behavesdifferently
30 T. Ayllon and J. Michael, "The Psyof chiatricNurse as a Behavioral Engineer,"
different
people. The significance
this experiment,
however,is thatthe Journal of the ExperimentalAnalysis of
was able to isolate the Behavior, 2, 1959, pp. 323-334.
investigator
variablesand the prin- 31 There is, of course, no intentionon
determining
our part to equate "mental" illness or simiciplesby whichtheyoperatedto pro- larly severe behavior problemswith crimiduce thiscommonphenomenon.
nal behavior.The only connectionthat we
While thisis by no meansa com- are making is that both may be seen to
basic beplete survey of the relevant functionaccording to the same
havioral principles and both may be in
testsof the behavioral opposition
experimental
to establishednorms.
32 W. Isaacs, J. Thomas, and I. Goldiaprinciples
outlinedabove,it mayserve
to point out that many formsof mond, "Application of Operant Condition29 Donald J. Cohen, "Justin and His
Peers: an Experimental Analysis of a
Child's Social World," Child Development,33, 1962.
ing to Reinstate Verbal Behavior in Psychotics,"Journalof Speech and Disorders,
25, 1960, pp. 8-12.
33 T. Ayllon and N. Azrin, "The Meaof Behavior of
surementand Reinforcement
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CriminalBehavior
137
personnel of a mental hospital ward dence we would amend Sutherland's
for schizophrenicsrecordedthe behav- firstand eighthpropositions
to read:
behavior
is learnedaccordior of the patientsand providedconse- I. Criminal
of operantcondiquences to it accordingto certainpre- ing to theprinciples
establishedprocedures.Without going tioning.
into the manyimportantdetailsof this
long investigation,we may note that II. "Criminalbehavioris learnedin
withotherpersonsin the
in each of the six experimentsthat interaction
were carried out, the results demon- processof communication."
stratethat reinforcement
was effective
As DeFleur and Quinney have
in maintaining desired performances, noted,the major implication
of this
even though these were "back-ward" proposition
interaction
is thatsymbolic
psychoticswho had resisted all pre- is a necessary
conditionforthe learnvious therapy,includingpsychoanalysis, ing of criminalbehavior.36
Of direct
electroshocktherapy, lobotomies and relevanceto this is an experiment
so forth.
designedtotesttherelative
significance
and reinforceIn each experiment,
the performanceof verbal instructions
fellto a nearzero levelwhentheestab- mentcontingencies
in generating
and
lished response-reinforcement
relation maintaining
behava
certain
class
of
was
. The standard iors.37In brief,the resultsindicated
had beento
discontinued..
forreinforcement
procedure
providetokens... [exchanged]for a thatbehaviorcouldnot be maintained
de- solely through verbal instructions.
Performance
varietyof reinforcers.
creasedwhenthisresponse-reinforcement
However,it was also discoveredthat
(1) by delivering it was an
relationwas disrur~ted
arduoustask to
extremely
tokensindependently
of the response
withwhile still allowingexchangeof tokens shapea setof complexbehaviors
for the reinforcers
as dis(Exp II and III), out using verbal instructions
the tokensystem criminativestimuli. Behavior was
(2) by discontinuing
entirely
but providingcontinuing
access
developedand
to the reinforcers
(Exp IV), or (3) by quicklyand effectively
of verbal
bya combination
of tokensfor maintained
the delivery
discontinuing
conseand reinforcement
a previouslyreinforced
responsewhile instructions
simultaneously
providingtokensfor a quences.Symbolic
interaction
is, then,
alternativeresponse(Exp I not
different,
of reinenough, contingencies
and VI). Further,the effectivenessof
the reinforcement
proceduredid not appear to be limitedto an all-or-nonebasis.
Patients selected and performedthe assignmentthat provided the larger numwas
ber of tokens when reinforcement
available for more than one assignment
(Exp V).34
mustalso be present.
forcement
From the perspectiveof modern
behaviortheory,
two aspectsof socializationare usuallyconsideredto distinguishit fromotherprocessesof
behavioralchange: (1) Only those
behavioralchangesoccurring
through
Again, we cannot review all of the
are consideredrelevant;(2)
relevant literature, yet perhaps the learning
the changesin behaviorhaving
three investigationscited will serve to only
theiroriginsin interaction
withother
emphasize that manyformsof deviant
behavior are shaped and maintained 1964. L. Krasner and L. UlIman, Research
by various contingenciesof reinforce- in Behavior Modification,New York: Holt,
ment.35Given this experimentalevi- Rinehart and Winston, 1965. L. Ullman
and L. Krasner, Case Studies in Behavior
Psychotics,"Journal of the Experimental Modification,New York: Holt, Rinehart
and Winston, 1964.
Analysisof Behavior,8 (November,1965),
36 DeFleur and Quinney, op. cit., p. 3.
pp. 357-383.
34 Ibid., p. 381.
37 T. Ayllon and N. Azrin, "ReinforcewithMental Patients,"
mentand Instructions
35 See also J. J. Eysenck (ed.), Experiments in Behaviour Therapy, New York: Journal of the ExperimentalAnalysis of
PergamonPress, The Macmillan Company, Behavior,7, 1964, pp. 327-331.
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138
SOCIAL PROBLEMS
persons are consideredproductsof B, childA wouldlaterselectchildB
The behavior
of selectsocialization.8 Sutherland's theory as a companion.
may,then,be seen to be a theoryof ing childB was notthebehaviorthat
differential
socialization
sincehe, too, was reinforced.
The experimental
conrestricted
himselfto learninghaving ditionssimplypaired child B with
its origin in interaction
with other positivereinforcement.
In accordance
persons.While social learningis, in- with the principleof conditioning,
andevenpredominant,childB had becomea conditioned
deed,important
posiit certainly
does notexhaustthelearn- tive reinforcer.
As such any behavior
thepresence
ofchildB
ing process.In short,we may learn whichproduced
suchbehaviors,
(and, thus, our behaviorwould be wouldbe strengthened,
modified)withoutany directcontact for example, as verbal responses
withanotherperson.As such,Suther- requestingchild B's company.Thus,
hasnoted,theresults
of this
land's theorymay be seen to suffer as Staats42
froma significant
lacuna in that it studyindicatethat the conceptsof
thepossibility
stimuliand groupcohesion
of deviantbe- reinforcing
neglected
haviorbeinglearnedin nonsocialsitua- are relatedwhenanalyzedin termsof
setof learning
tions.Consequently,
to be an adequate an integrated
principles.
to reformutheoryof deviantbehavior,thetheory Glaser43has attempted
mustbe amendedfurtherto include late Sutherland'sdifferential
associathoseformsof deviantbehaviorthat tiontheory
in termsof socialidentificaare learnedin the absenceof social tion.It shouldbe recognized,
however,
as well as modeling
reinforcement.
Other people are not thatidentification
the only sourceof reinforcement
al- and imitativebehavior (which are
thoughtheyare the mostimportant.usuallyassociatedwithidentification)
As Jeffery39
of thesocialhas aptlynoted,stealing comprise
justone feature
is reinforcing
in and byitselfwhether izationprocess.Furthermore,
suchbeotherpeople knowaboutit and rein- haviormay be analyzedquite parsiforceit sociallyor not.The samemay moniouslywith the principlesof
be said to apply to manyformsof modernbehaviortheory.
For example,
in a studyby Banduraand Ross,44a
aggressive
behaviors.40
There are manystudieswhichare child experienced
the pairingof one
relevant
to socialinteraction
andsocial- adult with positivereinforcers.
Preizationon the one hand,and Suther- sumablythis adult would becomea
And indeed,
land'ssecondproposition
on theother. conditionedreinforcer.
For example,in a studyby Lott and later it was found that the child
Lott41it was foundthatwhenchildA imitatedthisadult morethanhe did
was reinforced
in thepresence
of child an adult who was not paired with
That is, the one
positivereinforcers.
38 Paul E. Secord and Carl W. Backman, adult,as he becamea stronger
reinSocial Psychology,New York: McGraw- forcer,
had also becomea stronger
SD
Hill, 1964.
for imitatingor followingbehavior.
op. cit.
Jeffery,
39
40 For some evidencethat aggressivebehavior may be of a respondentas well as
an operantnature,see N. Azrin,R. Hutchinson, and R. McLaughlin, "The Opportunity for Aggression as an Operant Reinforcerduring Aversive Stimulation,"Journal of the ExperimentalAnalysis of Behavior,8 (May, 1965), pp. 171-180.
41 B. E. Lott and A. J. Lott, "The Formationof PositiveAttitudesToward Group
Members," The Journal of Abnormal and
Social Psychology,61, 1960, pp. 297-300.
42 ArthurStaats,Human Learning,New
York: Holt, Rinehartand Winston, 1964,
p. 333.
43 Glaser, "Criminality Theories and
Behavioral Images," op. cit.
44 A. Bandura,D. Ross, and S. Ross, "A
ComparativeTest of the Status Envy, Social Power and the Secondary Reinforcement Theories of IdentificationLearning,"
Journalof Abnormaland Social Psychology,
67, 1963, pp. 527-534.
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CriminalBehavior
139
criminativestimulusfunctionof a
group.For example,specificindividuals as physicalstimulimay acquire
discriminative
controloveran individual's behavior.The child in our exfor certain
ample above is reinforced
gestedthata changein the reinforcingkindsof behaviorsin the presenceof
value of an individual will change his his parent,thusthe parent'spresence
other may come to controlthis type of
power as a stimuluscontrolling
people's behaviorin variousways. An behavior.
He is reinforced
fordifferent
increasein the reinforcing
value of an
individualwill increaseverbal and motor behaviors
in thepresenceof his peers,
approach, or companionable responses, who thencometo set theoccasionfor
respectfulresponses, affectionatebehav- this type of behavior.
Consequently
ior, followingbehavior,smiling,pleasant
mustbe amendedto
conversation,sympatheticresponses and this proposition
read: II. Criminalbehavioris learned
the like.45
both in nonsocialsituationsthatare
The relevanceof these studiesis
or discriminative,
and
that theyhave isolatedsome of the reinforcing
through that social interactionin
variableswhereby
thebe- whichthe behavior other
determining
of
persons
haviorof one personis influenced
or is
or discriminative
reinforcing
for
the
of
another
behavior
as
changedby
criminal
behavior.
well as the principlesby whichthese
variablesoperate.We have,of course, III. "The principalpartof thelearnthesurface.Manyother ing of criminal
behavioroccurswithin
onlyscratched
variablesare involved.For instance, intimate
personalgroups."
not all people are equallyeffective
in
In termsof ouranalysis,
theprimary
or influencing
thebehavior
controlling
wouldbe seen to be themajor
group
of others.The personwhocan mediate sourceof an individual'ssocial reinthe mostreinforcers
will exercisethe forcements.
The bulk of behavioral
most power. Thus, the parent,who
whichthechildreceives
occurs
training
controls
moreof hischild'sreinforcers,at a timewhen the
trainers,
usually
will exercisemore power than an the
parents,possessa verypowerful
older siblingor the temporary
"baby system
of reinforcers.
In fact,we might
sitter."As the child becomesolder
characterize
a primary
groupas a genand less dependentupon the parent eralizedreinforcer
with
associated
(one
for many of his reinforcers,
other manyreinforcers,
as well
conditioned
individualsor groups such as his as
unconditioned).And, as we sugpeersmayexercisemorepower.Carry- gestedabove,as thechildgrowsolder,
the groups other than the familymay
ing the analysisone step further,
personwhohas accessto a largerange cometo controla majority
of an indiof aversivestimuliwill exertmore
vidual'sreinforcers,
theadolescent
e.g.,
than
one
who
has not. Thus a
power
peergroup.
peergroupmaycometo exercisemore
To say thatthe primarygroup is
power over a child's behaviorthan theprincipalmolderof an individual's
the parent even thoughthe parent behavioral
is not to ignore
repertoire
maystillcontrola largeshareof the social learningwhich may occur in
child'spositivereinforcers.
other contexts.As we noted above,
In additionto thereinforcing
func- learningfromsocial models can
be
tionof an individualor group,there
in termsof these
adequately
explained
as
seen
in
the
Cohen
the
and
is,
behavioralprinciples.
The analysiswe
Bandura and Ross studies,the disemployedtherecan also be extended
to learningfromthe massmediaand
45 Staats, 1964, op. cit., p. 333.
Thus, Bandura's and Ross's results
demonstrate
thatimitating
or following behavioris at leastin parta functionof thereinforcing
valueof people
as social stimuli.
On thebasisoftheseresults
it is sug-
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140
SOCIAL
PROBLEMS
from "reference"groups. In any case, motivation
maybe seen to be a funcwe mayalterthisproposition
to read: tionof theprocessesbywhichstimuli
value
III. The principalpartof thelearning acquireconditioned
reinforcing
stimuli.Reof criminalbehavioroccursin those and becomediscriminative
stimuli
theindividual's inforcersand discriminative
groupswhichcomprise
here would become the dependent
majorsourceof reinforcements.
the independentvariables
IV. "When criminal behavior is variables;
wouldbe the conditioning
procedures
includes(a) tech- previously
learned,thelearning
mentioned
and thelevelof
thecrime,which
niquesof committing
deprivation.For example, when a
some- prisoneris deprived
are sometimes
verycomplicated,
of contactwith
timesverysimple; (b) the specific members
of theoppositesex,suchsex
directionof motives,drives,rational- reinforcers
will become much more
izations,and attitudes."
thosesexualreinforcThus,
powerful.
A studyby Klaus and Glaser46as ers thatare available,such as homowouldcometo exerta
well as manyotherstudies47
indicate sexualcontact,
thatreinforcement
areof greatdealofinfluence
andwouldshape
contingencies
in learningvarious behaviorsthat would be unlikelyto
primeimportance
behavioraltechniques.
And,
And,of course, occurwithoutsuch deprivation.
many techniques,both simple and withoutgoing any furtherinto this
arespecific
to a particular topic,somestimulimaybe morereincomplicated,
deviantact suchas jimmying,
picking forcing,under similarconditionsof
forcertainindividualsor
locks of buildingsand cars,picking deprivation,
short-and big-contechniques, groupsthanfor others.Furthermore,
pockets,
Other the satiationof one or moreof these
andsafe-cracking.
counterfeiting
wouldallowforan increase
techniquesin criminalbehaviormay reinforcers
of others.
or neutral in therelative
be learnedin conforming
strength
contexts,e.g., drivinga car, signing Much, therefore,can be learned
characteristics
of
checks,shootinga gun, etc. In any aboutthe distinctive
event,we need not alterthe firstpart a groupbyknowingwhattheavailable
reinforcers
are and the
and effective
of thisproposition.
The secondpartof thisproposition
stimuli, both
deservesomeadditional analysis isandthat reinforcing
does,however,
positive
negative, elicit certain recomments.Sutherland'smajor focus spondents.Unconditionedreinforcerselicit
hereseemsto be motivation.
Much of these responses without training, condiwhatwe havealreadydiscussedin this tioned reinforcerselicit such responses
throughrespondentconditioning.Staats and
paper oftengoes under the general Staats
(Complex Human Behavior, New
The topic of York: Holt,
headingof motivation.
Rinehartand Winston, 1964)
as it is com- have characterizedsuch respondentsas "atis as important
motivation
is relatedto the titude" responses. Thus, a positive reinplex.This complexity
attitude. Furtherfactthatthe same stimulusmayhave forcer elicits a positivehave
theserespondents
stimuluscharit maybe botha rein- more,
two functions:
acteristicswhich may become discriminative
a
discriminative
stimulus
and
stimuli setting the occasion for a certain
forcing
which class of operantscalled "striving"responses
thebehavior
stimulus
controlling
positive reinforcersand escape and/or
is followedby reinforcement.48
Thus, for
avoidancebehaviorsfornegativereinforcers.
46 D. J. Klaus and R. Glaser, "Increasing Team ProficiencyThrough Training,"
Pittsburg:American Instituteof Research,
1960.
47 See Robert L. Burgess, "Communication Networks and Behavioral Consequences," forthcoming.
48 A central principle underlyingthis
These respondents and their attendant
stimuli may be generalized to other reinforcing stimuli. Thus, striving responses
can be seen to generalize to new positive
reinforcerssince these also will elicit the
respondentresponses and their characteristic stimuli which have become SD's for
such behavior.
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CriminalBehavior
141
behaviorsuponwhichtheyare contin- of a grouparebyobserving
reaction
to
that behavior,
i.e., thesanctions
gent.Basically,we are contending
appliedto,
thenatureof thereinforcer
and or reinforcement
conand punishment
system
the reinforcement
are sequencesof, such behavior.We may
contingencies
of individualand also learnwhat a group'snormsare
crucialdeterminants
a de- throughverbalor writtenstatements.
group behavior.Consequently,
of an individual'sor group's The individualgroup memberalso
scription
of learnswhat is and is not acceptable
and an understanding
reinforcers,
theprinciples
af- behavioron the basis of verbalstatebywhichreinforcers
fect behavior,would be expectedto ments made by others,as well as
yielda greatdeal of knowledgeabout throughthe sanctions(i.e., the reinindividualandgroupdeviantbehavior. forcingor aversivestimuli)appliedto
which his behavior(and othernormviolaFinally,the rationalizations
withregardto trust tors) byothers.
Cresseyidentifies
violatorsand the peculiarextensions Behaviortheoryspecifiesthe place
statements
and sanctions
of "defensesto crimes"or "techniques of normative
of neutralization"
by which deviant in the dynamicsof acquiring"conas identified
behavioris justified,
by forming"or "normative"behavior.
Sykesand Matza,49maybe analyzedas Just as the behaviorand even the
of the individoperantbehaviorsof the escape or physicalcharacteristics
avoidancetypewhichare maintained ual mayservediscriminative
functions,
of avoid- verbal behavior,and this includes
becausetheyhave the effect
that normative
can be analyzed
statements,
ing or reducingthe punishment
statement
can be
comesfromsocialdisapproval
by one- as SD's. A normative
self as well as by others.We may, analyzedas an SD indicating
thatthe
of a groupoughttobehavein
rewritethis propositionto members
therefore,
read: IV. The learningof criminalbe- a certainwayin certaincircumstances.
behaviorwould be
havior,includingspecifictechniques, Such "normative"
is developedand maintained
and avoidanceprocedures,
attitudes,
bysocialreAs we observedin the
and available inforcement.
a function
oftheeffective
and the existingreinforce-Ayllon-Azrin
reinforcers,
study51of instructions
and reinforcement
such
mentcontingencies.
contingencies,
verbal behaviorwould not maintain
of motives anyparticular
V. "The specificdirection
class of behaviorsif it
and drivesis learnedfromdefinitionswerenotat leastoccasionally
backedby
of thelegal codesas favorableor un- reinforcement
Extending
consequences.
favorable."
theiranalysis,
an individualwouldnot
"conform"to a normif he did not
In thisproposition,
Sutherland
apat leastin part, have a past historyof reinforcement
pearsto be referring,
behavior.This
to the concept"norm"whichmaybe for such conforming
forearlierwe statedthat
madebya num- is important,
definedas a statement
ber of the membersof a group,not we canlearna greatdealabouta group
whattheeffective
reinforcor byknowing
all of them,prescribing
necessarily
are
the
ers
behaviors
and
which
upon
at certain
certainbehaviors
proscribing
are contingent.
We maynow say
they
norms
what
the
We
infer
often
times.5?
thatwe can learna greatdeal about
49 Cressey, Other People's Money, op. an individual'sor a group'sbehavior
not
cir., pp. 93-138. G. M. Sykes and David whenwe are able to specify, only
Matza, "Techniques of Neutralization: A whatthe effective
reinforcers
are,but
Theory of Delinquency," American Sociological Review, 22 (December, 1957), pp.
664-670.
50 George C. Homans, Social Behavior:
Its ElementaryForms,New York: Harcourt,
Brace and World, 1961.
51 Ayllon-Azrin,1964, op. cit.
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142
SOCIAL PROBLEMS
also what the rulesor normsare by The specificclass of behaviorswhich
whichthesereinforcers
are applied.52 are learnedand theirfrequencyof
are a functionof the reinFor thesetwotypesof knowledge
will occurrence
and availtellus muchaboutthetypesof behav- forcerswhichare effective
ior thattheindividualwill developor able, and therulesor normsbywhich
are applied.
the typesof behaviorsthatare domi- thesereinforcers
nantin a group.
Forexample,ithas oftenbeennoted VI. "A person becomes delinquent
thatmostofficial
actsarecom- because of an excess of definitions
criminal
favorableto violationof law over
of minority
mittedbymembers
groups definitions
to violationof
unfavorable
who live in slums.One distinguishing
law."
characteristic
of a slumis thehighlevel
of deprivation
social
ofmanyimportant
This propositionis generallyconthereinforcers.
thissituation sideredthe heartof Sutherland's
Exacerbating
is thefactthatthesepeople,in contrast ory; it is the principleof differential
to othergroups,lack the behavioral association.It followsdirectlyfrom
to producerein- proposition
necessary
V, and we mustnow refer
repertoires
forcement
in theprescribed
In proposiways.They back to thatproposition.
have not been and are not now ade- tion V, the use of the preposition
for lawfulor nor- "from"in the phrase,"learnedfrom
quatelyreinforced
mativebehavior.
Andas we knowfrom definitions
of thelegal codesas favormistheLaw of OperantReinforcement,
is somewhat
a able or unfavorable,"
reinforcer
will increasethe rate of leading.The meaninghere is not so
occurrence
of anyoperantwhichpro- muchthatlearningresultsfromthese
ducesit. Furthermore,
we would pre- definitions
as it is thattheyformpart
dictthatgivena largenumberof indi- of thecontent
of one'slearning,
detervidualsundersimilarconditions,
one'sbehavior
they miningwhichdirection
are likelyto behavein similarways. willgo in relation
to thelaw,i.e.,lawWithinsuch groups,manyformsof abidingor lawbreaking.
of the law make
These definitions
social reinforcement
maybecomeconwhich lawbreaking
or
seemeitherappropriate
tingent
uponclassesofbehaviors
are outsidethelargersociety'snorma- inappropriate.
Those definitions
which
tive requirements.
Norms and legal place lawbreaking
in a favorablelight
stimuli,will in a sense can be seen as essentially
codes, as discriminative
onlycontrolthebehaviorof thosewho normsof evasionand/ornormsdihaveexperienced
theappropriate
learn- rectlyconflicting
with conventional
If an individualhas been, norms.Theyare, as Sykesand Matza
ing history.
forsuch"normative" and Cresseynote,"techniques
andis,reinforced
of neuor "verbehavior,thatbehaviorwill be main- tralization,"
"rationalizations,"
If he has notbeen, balizations"whichmake criminalbetainedin strength.
for such haviorseem"all right"or justified,
and is not now reinforced
or
behaviorstheywouldbe weak,if they which providedefensesagainstselfat all. And, reproach and disapproval from
existedin his repertoire
the reinforcement
system others.53The principleof negative
importantly,
mayshapeand maintainanotherclass
of behaviorswhichdo resultin rein- 53 Sykes and Matza, op. cit., Cressey,
OtherPeople's Money, op. cit., pp. 93-138;
forcement
and suchbehaviorsmaybe Donald R. Cressey,"The DifferentialAssodeviantor criminal
considered
byother ciation Theory and Compulsive Crimes,"
of the group.Thus we may Journalof CriminalLaw, Criminologyand
members
to read: V. Police Science, 45 (May-June,1954), pp.
thisproposition
formulate
29-40; Donald R. Cressey,"Social Psycho52 Staats and Staats,op. cit.
logical Foundationsfor Using Criminalsin
the Rehabilitationof Criminals," Journal
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CriminalBehavior
143
reinforcement
would be of majorsig- of a groupbymakingvariousformsof
such as social
nificance
in theacquisition
and mainte- social reinforcement,
nanceof such behaviors.
and statuscontingent
approval,esteem,
This analysissuggeststhat it may upon thatbehavior.
not be an "excess" of one kind of
The concept"excess" in the statedefinition
overanotherin thesenseof ment,"excessof definitions
favorable
a cumulativeratio,but ratherin the to violationof law," has beenparticusense of the relativeamountof dis- larlyresistant
to operationalization.
A
criminative
stimulusvalue of one set translation
of thisconceptin termsof
of verbalizations
or normativestate- modernbehaviortheory
wouldinvolve
consementsover another.As we suggested the "balance"of reinforcement
in the last section,normativestate- quences,positiveand negative.The
is
Reinforcement
mentsare, themselves,
behaviorsthat Law of Differential
are a function
of reinforcement
conse- crucialhere.That is, a personwould
quences.They,in turn,mayserveas engagein thosebehaviorsfor which
mosthighlyin
discriminative
stimuliforotheroperant he had beenreinforced
behaviors(verbaland nonverbal).But the past. (The readermayrecallthat
recallthatreinforcement
mustbe forth- in theAyllon-Azrin
studywithschizoit was foundthatthepatients
beforea phrenics,
coming,at leastoccasionally,
verbal statementcan continueas a selectedandperformed
thosebehaviors
discriminative
stimulus.
Bear in mind, whichprovidedthe most reinforcers
was availablefor
also, thatbehaviormayproducerein- whenreinforcement
beeven in the ab- morethanone response.)Criminal
forcingconsequences
sence of any accompanying
verbal haviorwould,then,occurunderthose
conditionswhere an individualhas
statements.
for such
In otherterms,
a personwillbecome been mosthighlyreinforced
andtheaversive
consequences
delinquentif the officialnorms or behavior,
laws do not performa discriminativecontingentupon the behaviorhave
functionand thereby
control"norma- beenof sucha naturethattheydo not
tive" or conformingbehavior.We performa "punishment
function."54
know fromthe Law of DifferentialThis leadsus to a discussion
of propoletus reformulate
Reinforcement
thatthatoperantwhich sitionVII. But,first,
will the sixth propositionto read: VI.
producesthe mostreinforcement
becomedominantif it resultsin rein- Criminalbehavioris a functionof
forcement.
Thus, if lawful behavior normswhich are discriminative
for
the criminalbehavior,the learning of
did not resultin reinforcement,
strengthof the behaviorwould be whichtakesplace whensuchbehavior
weakened,and a stateof deprivation
54 This, then, is essentiallydifferential
would result,whichwould, in turn, reinforcement
as Jefferypresents it. We
increasethe probability
thatotherbe- have attemptedto show how this is conhaviorswould be emittedwhich are gruent with differentialassociation. Furignoresthe key concepts
ther,while Jeffery
and such behaviorswould of
reinforced,
'definitions"and "excess" we have inbe strengthened.
And,of course,these corporated them into the reformulation.
behaviors,
thoughcommonto one or These definitions,viewed as verbalizations,
moregroups,maybe labelleddeviant become discriminativestimuli; and "exAndsuchbehavior cess" operatesto produce criminalbehavior
bythelargersociety.
two relatedways: (1) verbalizationsconthemselves,
patterns,
mayacquirecon- in
ducive to law violation have greater disvalue and, subse- criminativestimulusvalue than other verditionedreinforcing
quently,be enforcedby the members balizations,and (2) criminalbehavior has
of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 2
(July,1965), pp. 45-59. See revisedpropositionIV.
been more highly reinforcedand has produced fewer aversive outcomes than has
law abiding behavior in the conditioning
historyof the individual.
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144
SOCIAL PROBLEMS
than nonis more highlyreinforced
duration,and
Priority,frequency,
criminalbehavior.
of associationwith criminal
intensity
and groupsare important
to
VII. "Differentialassociationsmay persons
theextentthattheyinsurethatdeviant
duration,priority,behaviorwill receivegreateramounts
varyin frequency,
and intensity."
of reinforcement
at morefrequentinIn terms
of ouranalysis,
theconcepts tervalsor with a higherprobability
behavior.But the
duration,and priorityare than conforming
frequency,
and amountof
probability,
straightforward
enough.The concept frequency,
are thecrucialelements.
could be operationalized
to reinforcement
intensity
designatethe numberof the individ- This meansthatit is thecomingunder
of reinual's positiveand negativereinforcersthe controlof contingencies
thatselectively
anotherindividualor groupcontrols, forcement
producesthe
as well as the reinforcement
value of criminal definitionsand behavior.
letus rewrite
thatindividual
or group.As previously Consequently,
thispropothegroupwhichcanmediate sitionto read: VII. The strength
suggested
of
themostpositivereinforcers
andwhich criminalbehavioris a directfunction
has the mostreinforcement
and probavalue, as of theamount,frequency,
well as access to a largerrange of bilityof its reinforcement.
aversivestimuli,will exertthe most
controlover an individual'sbehavior. IX. "While criminalbehavioris an
of generalneedsandvalues,
There is a good reasonto suspect, expression
was not so it is not explainedby thosegeneral
however,thatSutherland
muchreferring
to differential
associa- needs and values since noncriminal
of thesame
tionswithotherpersons,
as differentialbehavioris an expression
associations
withcriminalpatterns.
If needsand values."
this suppositionis correct,then this
In thisproposition,
Sutherland
may
can be clarified
byrelating have beenreacting,
proposition
at leastin part,to
it to differential
of rein- the controversy
contingencies
the concept
regarding
forcement
rather
thandifferential
social "need."This controversy
is nowessenassociations.
Fromthisperspective,
the tiallyresolved.For, we have finally
evidencewithregardto come to the realizationthat "needs"
experimental
thevariousschedulesof reinforcement
areunobservable,
fictional
hypothetical,
is of majorimportance.
Therearethree inner-causal
agentswhichwereusually
aspectsof the schedulesof reinforce-inventedon thespotto providespurimentwhichare of particularimpor- ous explanationsof some observable
tancehere: (1) the amountof rein- behavior. Futhermore,they were
forcement:
the greaterthe amountof inferredfrompreciselythe same bethehighertheresponse haviortheyweresupposedto explain.
reinforcement,
of reinforce- While we can ignorethe reference
rate; (2) the frequency
mentwhichrefersto the numberof to needs, we must discuss values.
reinforcements
per giventimeperiod: Values may be seen as reinforcers
the shorterthe timeperiod between whichhavesaliencefora number
ofthe
thehighertheresponse membersof a group or society.We
reinforcements,
of rein- agreewithSutherland
rate;and (3) theprobability
to theextent
that
whichis the reciprocalof he meansthatthenatureof thesegenforcement
thelower
responses
perreinforcement:
the ratioof responsesper reinforce-sis of Behavior (October, 1962), pp. 543ment,thehighertherateof response."55597. Because the emission of a fixed ratio
or variable ratio of
responses requires a
55 R. T. Kelleher and L. R. Gollub, "A
period of time, the rate of respondingwill
Review of Positive Conditioned Reinforce- indirectlydeterminethe frequencyof rement,"Journalof the ExperimentalAnaly- inforcement.
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CriminalBehavior
145
eralreinforcers
we haveseenthattheprinciple
do notnecessarily
deter- process,
reinforcement
is of crumine which behavior they will of differential
elseof cial importance.But we must also
strengthen.
Money,orsomething
will reinforce attendto a thirdquestion,namely,
generalvalue in society,
anybehaviorthatproducesit. This re- what sustainsthe patternor continWe onlyhave
inforcement
may depend upon non- gencyof reinforcement?
criminalbehavior,but it also maybe- hintedat someof thepossiblyimporcomecontingent
upona setofbehaviors tant variables.We have mentioned
thatare labelledas criminal.Thus,if briefly,
for example,structural
factors
of a
can be interpreted
Sutherland
as mean- such as the level of deprivation
be- particulargroup with regardto iming thatcriminaland noncriminal
and thelack
havior cannotbe maintainedby the portantsocialreinforcers,
of "lawful"
reinforcement
same set of reinforcers,
we mustdis- of effective
failure
and theconcomitant
agree.However,it maybe thatthere behavior56
to
the
behavioral
are certainreinforcing
develop
appropriate
consequences
to producereinforcement
whichonlycriminal
behaviorwill pro- repertoires
We have also suggested
that
duce, for the behaviorfinallyshaped legally.57
will dependupon the reinforcer
that those behaviorswhich do resultin
is effective
forthe individual.Never- reinforcement
gain
may, themselves,
value and be enforced
notthe reinforcement
theless,it is thereinforcement,
natureof thereinforcer,
of thegroupthrough
which by themembers
specific
of variousformsof
explainstherateand formof behavior. the manipulation
But since this issue revolvesaround socialreinforcement
suchas socialapof reinforcement
which provalandstatus,
contingencies
contingent
uponsuch
are handledelsewhere,
we will elimi- behaviors.58
In short,new normsmay
natethislastproposition.
delindevelopandthesemaybe termed
the
larger
society.
by
quent
CONCLUDING
REMARKS
Therearemanyothertopicsthatare
The purposeof thispaperhas been of directrelevanceto the problemof
the applicationof the principlesof deviantbehaviorwhichwe have not
modernbehavior
to Sutherland's beenable to discussgiventherequiretheory
differential
associationtheory.While mentsof space.For instance,
no menSutherland'stheoryhas had an en- tionhas beenmadeof someoutstandin theareaofpunishment.
during effectupon the thinkingof ingresearch
ofcriminal
students
ithas,till This topic is, of course,of prime
behavior,
in theareaof crimeprevennow, undergoneno major theoreticalimportance
someof thisresearch
revisiondespitethefactthattherehas tion.To illustrate
been a steadyand cumulative
growth and its relevance,it has been found
thattheamountof bein the experimental
findingsof the experimentally
of learning.
havior suppressionproducedby reprocesses
There are threeaspectsof deviant
56 RobertK. Merton,Social Theory and
to
behaviorwhichwe have attempted
Social Structure,Glencoe, Ill.: The Free
deal with simultaneously,
but which Press, pp. 161-195. For a more complete
shouldbe separated.First,how does discussionof social structurein termsrelean individualbecomedelinquent,or vant to this paper, see Robert L. Burgess
and Don Bushell,Jr.,Behavioral Sociology,
how does he learndelinquentbehav- Parts
IV and V, forthcoming,
1967.
ior? Second,whatsustainsthisdelin57 Ibid., and Richard A. Cloward, "Il? We haveattempted
to legitimate Means, Anomie, and Deviant
quentbehavior
describethe waysin whichthe prin- Behavior," American Sociological Review,
1959), pp. 164-177.
ciples of modernbehaviortheoryare 2458(April,
Albert K. Cohen, Delinquent Boys;
to thedevelopment
relevant
and main- The
Culture of the Gang, Glencoe, Ill.:
tenanceof criminalbehavior.In the The Free
Press, 1955
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146
SOCIAL PROBLEMS
TABLE 1
A DIFFERENTIAL ASSOCIATION-REINFORCEMENT
THEORY OF CRIMINAL BEHAVIOR
Sutherland's
Statements
Statements
Reformulated
1. Criminalbehavioris learnedaccording
to the principlesof operantconditioning.
1. "Criminalbehavioris learned."
8. "The processof learningcriminalbehaviorby association
withcriminal
and
anti-criminal
patternsinvolvesall of
themechanisms
thatareinvolvedin any
otherlearning."
2. "Criminalbehavioris learnedin inter- 2. Criminalbehavioris learnedboth in
thatare reinforcing
nonsocialsituations
actionwithotherpersonsin a process
and throughthatsoor discriminative
of communication."
in whichthe behavior
cial interaction
or disof otherpersonsis reinforcing
forcriminalbehavior.
criminative
3. "The principalpartof the learningof 3. The principalpart of the learningof
occursin thosegroups
criminal
behavior
criminalbehavioroccurswithinintiwhichcomprisethe individual'smajor
matepersonalgroups."
sourceof reinforcements.
4. "When criminalbehavioris learned, 4. The learningof criminalbehavior,inthelearningincludes(a) techniques
of
cluding specifictechniques,attitudes,
is a function
and avoidanceprocedures,
the crime,whichare somecommitting
andavailablereinforcers,
of theeffective
sometimes
timesverycomplicated,
very
continand the existingreinforcement
simple; (b) the specificdirectionof
and
motives,drives, rationalizations,
gencies.
attitudes."
of motivesand 5. The specificclass of behaviorswhich
5. "The specificdirection
of ocare learnedand theirfrequency
drivesis learnedfromdefinitions
of the
ofthereinforcers
area function
or unfavorable." currence
legalcodesas favorable
and available,and
whichare effective
the rulesor normsby whichthesereare applied.
inforcers
ofnorms
is a function
behavior
because 6. Criminal
6. "A personbecomesdelinquent
for criminal
which are discriminative
to
of an excessof definitions
favorable
violationof law over definitions
behavior,the learningof whichtakes
unto violationof law."
favorable
place when such behavioris more
bethannoncriminal
highlyreinforced
havior.
of criminalbehavioris a
associationsmay varyin 7. The strength
7. "Differential
oftheamount,
directfunction
and intenfrequency,
duration,
priority,
frequency,
of its reinforcement.
and probability
sity."
behavioris an expres- 9. (Omit fromtheory.)
9. "While criminal
sion of generalneedsand values,it is
not explainedby thosegeneralneeds
behavior
and values since noncriminal
of thesameneedsand
is an expression
values."
thatif an
aversivestimuliis a more,it has beendiscovered
sponse-contingent
of the aversivestimulusis repeatedly
of the intensity
directfunction
paired
butthata mildaver- withpositivereinforcement,
and reinaversivestimulus,
is not availableotherwise,
sive stimulusmayproducea dramatic forcement
if it is paired the aversivestimulusmay becomea
behavior-suppression
for an alternative discriminative
withreinforcement
stimulus(SD) forreinnot deand, consequently,
and incompatiblebehavior.Further- forcement
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CriminalBehavior
147
can be atassociation
crease the behavior'sfrequencyof withdifferential
occurrence.
tributedto its scoringlow on these
Thereare, in conclusion,
numerous criteria,
especially(1) and (3). We
criteria
thathavebeenusedto evaluate submitthat the reformulated
theory
theories.
One suchsetis as follows:
hereanswerssomeof these
presented
(1) The amount of empirical support problemsand bettermeets each of
for the theory'sbasic propositions. these criteria.It is our contention,
thatthereformulated
theory
(2) The "power" of the theory,i.e., the moreover,
amount of data that can be derived not only specifies the conditions
fromthe theory'shigher-order
prop- under which criminal behavior is
ositions.
learned,but also some of the condiin
(3) The controllingpossibilities of the tionsunderwhichdeviantbehavior
theory,including (a) whether the generalis acquired.Finally,whilewe
theory's propositions are, in fact,
have not statedour propositionsin
causal principles,and (b) whether
axiomaticform,a close examithe theory'spropositionsare stated strictly
in such a way thattheysuggestpos- nationwillrevealthateachof thelater
sible practical applications.
followfrom,modify,or
propositions
What dissatisfaction
therehas been clarifyearlierpropositions.
SANCTIONS*
JACK P. GIBBS
StateUniversity
Washington
the concept
Few conceptsin sociologyhave
Despite its importance,
wider applicationthan sanction,if sanctionremainsambiguousand its
probpresentsa formidable
onlybecauseit entersintothe notion definition
of norms and related distinctionslem. Thereare few formaltreatments
treat
(e.g., laws versuscustoms).Giventhe of theconcept,and manywriters
term.Leaving
conceptuallinkbetweensanctionsand sanctionas a primitive
norms,it followsthat the definitionthe conceptundefined
impliesthatits
of crimeor deviantbehaviorand the meaningis generally
and
understood,
of relatedfieldsrequire the assumptionis by no means undelimitation
a formaldefiniEvenwithout
to sanctions.
The importancejustified.
reference
would agreethat
in tion,mostobservers
of sanctionsis no less conspicuous
on so- the executionof a felonor settinga
substantive
theory,
particularly
offenserepresents
a
cialorder.As a casein point,verylittle finefor a traffic
remainsif thiselementis deletedfrom sanction.Nonetheless,
the practiceof
undefined
has certain
Hobbesiantheory;and,withreference leavingsanctions
theoretical
to contemporary
issues,the much as reciprocityand consensusas bases
school is distinguishedof social order.This is particularlytrue for
functionalist
school in termsof, Malinowski. For criticismof Malinowski
fromthe conflict
on this point, see E. Adamson Hoebel,
interalia, emphasison sanctions.1
The Law
Primitive
* Some parts of this paper were written
in connectionwith a Russell Sage fellowship for the studyof law.
1 On the whole, functionalistsdo not
emphasize formal punitive sanctions as
of
MAlan,Cambridge:
Harvard UniversityPress, 1954, pp. 190210; and William Seagle, "PrimitiveLaw
and ProfessorMalinowski," American Anthropologist,39 (April-June, 1937), pp.
275-290.
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