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Medieval Europe at Its Height
A.D. 1050-1500
Chapter 13
By: Michel Kernizan
The Crusades
Section 1
• Early Middle Ages were characterized by decentralized
government, warfare, cultural isolation, famine, and
wretched living conditions, but by A.D. 1100, the
conditions in Europe had begun to improve.
• Strong central governments have been built by some
succeeded European monarchs.
• Better farming methods developed, town and trade
began to reappear, and the church held a powerful sway
over the emotions and energies of the people.
• Changes in religion, society, politics, and economics
made the High Middle Ages (A.D. 1050 to A.D. 1270) a
springboard for a new and brilliant civilizations in
western Europe.
Continued…
• The transformation of medieval society began with a
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holy war over Jerusalem between the European
Christians and the Muslims.
The European Christians undertook nine series of
military expeditions to recover the Holy Land from the
Muslims.
These expeditions were known as the Crusades.
Call For a Crusade
• Jerusalem was a holy city for the Jews, Christians, and
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the Muslims.
The Jews regarded it as Zion, God’s own city, and as the
site of Solomon's temple.
The Christians stated it was holy because it was the
place were Jesus was crucified and resurrected.
The Muslims said it was the third holiest city after
Makkah and Madinah. It was the place were Muhammad
ascended to heaven from Jerusalem.
Jerusalem
• Fell to Arab invaders in
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A.D. 600s.
Late in A.D. 1000s, the
Seljuk Turks (central
Asian Muslim people)
took Jerusalem and left
Palestine in chaos.
Hazards of pilgrimage
increased.
First Crusade
1096A.D.-1099A.D.
• 1095 A.D., Pope Urban II asked for a volunteer army to
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take Jerusalem and Palestine form the Seljuks.
The Crusade was a welcome chance for the knights to
employ their fighting skills.
The Crusade meant freedom from feudal bonds for the
peasants.
All were promised immediate salvation if they were
killed.
Adventure and a possibility of wealth were other reasons
to join.
Red crosses of cloth were stitched on clothing as a
symbol of service to God.
Continued
• The First Crusade marked the onset of a long period of
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Christian persecution of the Jews.
French nobles led three armies of Crusader knights and
volunteers that traveled separately from western Europe
to the eastern Mediterranean.
The three armies met in Constantinople in 1097 A.D. and
made there way to Jerusalem, enduring the hardships of
desert travel as well as quarrels among their leaders.
In 1099 A.D., the crusaders reached the city. After almost
two months, Jerusalem fell. Most of the Muslim and
Jewish inhabitants were massacred.
Success of the First Crusade reinforce the authority of
the Church and strengthened the self-confidence of
western Europe.
Continued
• Contact between the Crusaders and the relatively more
sophisticated civilizations of the Byzantines and Muslims
would continued for the next 100 years and become a
major factor in ending the cultural isolation of western
Europe.
Second Crusade
• Less than 50 years after the First Crusade, the Seljuks
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conquered part of the Crusader states in Palestine.
The Second Crusade was called a pond by Pope
Eugenius IV to regain the territory.
Monk Bernard of Clairvaux persuaded King Louis VII of
France and the Roman Emperor Conrad III to lead
armies to Palestine.
Second Crusade lasted from 1147 A.D. to1149 A.D..
Was unsuccessful because Louis VII and Conrad III
constantly quarreled and had an ineffective militarily.
Were easily defeated by the Seljuks.
Third Crusade
• Also so know as the “Crusade of Kings” lasted from
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1189 A.D. to 1152 A.D.
A diplomatic and forceful leader named Saladin united
the Muslim forces and captured Jerusalem in 1187 A.D.
which stunned and horrified people of western Europe.
Holy Roman Emperor Frederick Barbarossa of Germany,
King Philip Augustus of France, and King Richard I of
England assembled warriors for the Third Crusade.
Not more successful than the Second Crusade.
Frederick Barbarossa died on his way to Palestine and
his army returned home.
Philip Augustus returned home before his army reached
Jerusalem, which left Richard to struggle alone.
Continued
• Richards’ army defeated the Muslims in several battles
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but could not win a decisive victory over Saladin’s welltrained forces.
After three years of fighting, Richard signed a truce with
the Muslims.
Tried to persuade Saladin to return to Jerusalem to the
Christians but was denied.
Saladin allowed Christians pilgrims access to Jerusalem.
Effects of the Crusades
• Crusades helped to speed up the pace of changes
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already underway in western Europe.
Helped break down feudalism and increase the authority
of kings.
European monarchs levied taxes, raised armies, and
cooperated on a large scale.
Dead nobles without heirs, lands were pasted to kings.
Many lesser nobles sold their estates of allowed their
serfs to buy their freedom to become freeholders on the
land or artisans in towns, to raise money for weapons.
Contact with more advanced Byzantine and Muslim
civilizations broadened European view of the world.
Continued
• The European presence in the East heightened demand at
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home for Eastern luxury goods: spices, sugar, melons,
tapestries, silk, and other items.
Commerce increased in the Eastern Mediterranean area.
Muslims learned how to build better ships, make more
accurate maps, use magnetic compass, and improve their
weaponry.
Religious military orders of knights primarily aided pilgrims,
but they were also bankers for both princes and merchants.
Crusader states were relatively weak.
The arrive of the Crusaders united the Muslims against a
common enemy.
Economic and cultural Revival
Section 2
• Economy of western Europe begun to thrive around 1000 A.D.
• Opportunities in trade encouraged the growth of towns in turn
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stimulated creative thought and innovations in art.
Heavier plows were invented which enabled farmers to
cultivate new lands and increased food production. Nobles and
freeholders migrated to new areas clearing forest, draining
swamps, and building villages.
Collar harness replaced the ox yoke. The ox yoke choked the
horse, but the new collar shifted weight allowing the horses to
pull the plow faster than the oxen, also allowing the farmers to
grow more crops.
As the land began to feed more people, the population
increase.
Expansion of Trade
• Revival of towns caused a rapid expansion of trade.
• Important sea and river routes connected western Europe,
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and Scandinavia.
The Roman road system was rebuilt and carried
international traders to and from Europe.
Italian towns such as Venice, Pisa, and Genoa and
controlled the Mediterranean trade after A.D. 1200,
bringing silks and spiced from Asian to Europe.
Flanders (present-day northern France) and southwestern
Belgium became the center of trade on Europe’s northern
coast. Textiles were produced there and were sent to the
Black sea and then traded at the Middle Eastern markets
for porcelain, silk, and silver.
Continued…
• Towns along the Baltic coast form the Hanseatic League,
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which controlled trade between eastern Europe and the
North Atlantic.
In a town, merchandise was varied and seemingly
endless.
Hundreds of traders met at trade fairs each year at
places convenient to the land and water routes.
Feudal lords charged the merchants fees, charged taxes
on goods, and offered protection to the merchants.
Champagne was the most famous fair in eastern France
located almost in the exact center of Europe.
Banking
• Early merchants used the barter system.
• Merchants found that system impractical and would only
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accept money on luxury goods such as silk.
The rise of money economy lead to the growth of
banking.
Since the traders came from different countries they had
different currencies.
Moneychangers (often Jews or Italians) determined the
value of currencies and exchanged one currencies for
another.
They also developed procedures for transferring funds
from one place to another, received deposits, and
arranged loans, which made them become the first
bankers in Europe.
Continued…
• The word bank comes from
banca, or bench that the
moneychangers set up at fair.
• Kings, clergy, and nobles
became dependent on money
to pay their expenses.
Growth of Towns
• Towns grew tremendously between 1000 and 1100 A.D.
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beside well traveled roads or beside waterways.
Townspeople built walls (made out of stone with a
guard tower at the gate) around there city to protect
themselves from bandits.
Medieval towns had almost no sanitation and a constant
stench.
Garbage and sewage were tossed into the streets. These
conditions lead to a rapid spread of diseases such as
diphtheria, typhoid, influenza, and malaria. These
diseases turned into epidemics such as the
Bubonic plague a.k.a. Black Death was the worst
epidemics between 1348 A.D. and 1350 A.D. which killed
one-third of the population.
Medieval Towns
• Inside the walls narrow,
winding streets bustled with
people, cart drawn by horses
and oxen, and farm animals on
the way to the market.
• Church bells chimed the hours:
carts piled high with goods
creaked and rumbled through
streets about the size of alleys.
• Shop lined the streets at
ground level, and the shop
owners live above the shops.
• Most building were made of
wood and thatch roofs which
made fire a constant hazard.
Guilds
• Guilds are business associations that merchants and
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artisans organized themselves into during the 1100 A.D..
The guilds primary function was to maintain a monopoly
of the local market for its members.
Guilds restricted trading by foreigners in their city and
enforced uniform pricing.
Craft guilds, regulated the work of artisans; carpenters,
shoemakers, blacksmiths, masons, tailors, weavers.
Women worked as laundresses, seamstresses and
embroiders, and maidservants and had their own trade
associations.
Craft guilds established strict rules concerning prices,
wages and employment. Craft guilds also prohibited
competition.
Continued…
• Craft guilds were controlled by masters which were artisans who
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owned their own shops and tools and employed less skilled
artisans as helpers.
Artisans severed an apprenticeship to become a master at a
particular craft. The length of apprenticeship varied according to
the difficultly of the craft.
Apprentices worked for a master with no pay.
After being an apprentice they became a journeyman, which
received pay. Journeyman could only work under a master.
Journeyman then submitted a work of art to the guild for
approval, if it was approved, the journeyman could set his shop.
Guilds also provided medical and unemployment relief to its
members.
They also organized social and religious life by sponsoring out
door plays, banquets, and holy day processions.
Rise of the Middle Class
• In medieval towns or burgs, a name for a new class of people
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was created. In German it was burghers, in France it was
bourgeoisie, in England its was burgesses.
The name originally referred to anyone who live in a town,
but it eventually came to mean the people who made money
through the money economy.
The middle class included bankers, artisans who no longer
had to rely on the land to make a living, and merchants.
The middle class turned towns into organized municipalities.
Kings began to rely on the middle class for loans and income
taxes they paid.
Town Government
• Conflict developed between the feudal classes and the
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burghers,
The burghers wanted to run there own affairs, while the
feudal lords began to strictly enforce feudal laws to keep the
burghers in line.
In A.D. 1000 the money gave the towns the income and
power they needed to win the struggle against the lords.
Italian towns formed groups called communes which made
the Italian towns independent city-states.
In other parts of Europe, the kings and nobles granted
charters which allowed the cities to control their own affairs.
Many town also remained a part of a kingdom or feudal
territory.
Education
• Education was controlled by
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the clergy.
As town grew, the need for
educated officials increased.
The growth of courts and
other legal institutions
created a need for lawyers.
Around A.D.1150, students
and teachers began
meeting away form
monastery and cathedral
and formed universities.
Universities
• Began as a guild of scholars
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organized for learning.
Classes were held in rented
rooms, churches, or outdoors and
met regularly.
Teachers read the text and
discussed it while the students
took notes on slates.
Universities spread throughout
Europe by the end of 1200 A.D.
Most southern European
universities were modeled after
the law school at Bologna, Italy,
and specialized in law and
medicine.
Northern Europe specialized in
theology and liberal arts and were
modeled after the University of
Paris.
New Learning
• Medieval scholars studied the works of Aristotle, Muslim
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writing, and Roman law.
Much information was reached by Muslim and Jewish scholars
in European Muslim strongholds.
European contact with Muslim scientific thought sparked an
interest in the physical world led to the rise of western
science.
Church leaders opposed Aristotle’s works because his ideas
threatened Christian teachings. Although some scholars used
Aristotle’s works to theological questions and developed a
system of thought called scholasticism which emphasized the
interpretation of the Christian doctrine.
Continued…
• Thomas Aquinas was the most important scholastic thinker in
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1200 A.D..
Wrote the Summa Theologica in which he claimed that reason
was God’s gift that could provide answers to basic
philosophical questions. Reason, he said, exited in harmony
with faith, both pointing to God and the orderliness of
creation.
Catholic Churches accepted and promoted his way of thinking.
Strengthening of Monarchy
Section 3
• England fought to keep French
lands inherited from the
Normans.
• France’s king wanted to unite
these lands to their kingdom.
• In 1337 A.D. warfare began
when England’s Edward III
claimed the French crown.
• Between 1337 A.D. and 1453
A.D., England and France
fought a series of conflicts,
known as the Hundred Years’
War.
Joan of Arc
Major Battles
• England defeated France at
Crécy in 1346 A.D. and
Agincourt in 1415 A.D.
• England basically won because
of better weaponry such as a
firearm that was the
forerunner of the cannon and
the longbow.
• In 1429 A.D., a 17-year-old Joan
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of Arc told King Charles VII that
heavenly voices had told her to
save France.
She inspired a French army to a
victory at Orléans, which had been
a town under siege by England.
• Joan fell into English hands and
was burned at the stake for
witchcraft.
• However, her courage led the
French to gradually drive the
English out of France.
• Calais was the only French territory
in English hands at the end of the
war.
Effects of the War
• Since the war occurred on French soil, France suffered much worse
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than England.
The war gave France a new sense of unity.
England’s defeat lead to bitterness among the nobles who had lost
French lands. Fro the rest of the 1400 A.D., England was divided by
social conflict.
England’s defeat also allowed England to focus on problems at home.
The Hundred Years’ War hasted the decline of feudalism.
Longbows and firearms made feudal warfare based on castles and
mounted knight became outdated.
Feudal soldiers were replaced by national armies which were
expensive and monarchs turned to townspeople for a source of
revenue.
These groups willingly paid taxes and made loans in return for
security and good government.
France
• In the late 1400s, France’s monarchy won much prestige and
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power.
Louis XI the son of Charles VII, strengthened the
bureaucracy, kept the nobles under royal control, and
promoted trade and agriculture, and worked to unite all
French feudal lands under his crown.
Louis also gained partial control of Burgundy, which is one of
Europe’s most prosperous areas by encouraging quarrels
between Burgundy and the neighboring Swiss.
When Burgundy’s ruler, Charles the Bold died in battle with
the Swiss, in 1477, Burgundy was divided between his
daughter Mary and the French king.
England
• During the Hundred Years’ War English monarchy’s power was
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limited by the Parliament, which had won the right to levy
taxes, approve laws, and provide advice.
Royal authority decreased because of nobility for control of
the throne. This began in 1455 A.D. and was known as the
Wars of the Roses because the symbols of the rival families
were roses. The royal house of Lancaster bore the red roses
and its rival family, the hose of York, bore the white roses.
During this war Edward, duke of York, overthrew the
Lancaster dynasty and became King Edward IV.
He worked to strengthen royal government and to promote
trade.
His death in 1483 A.D. brought uncertainty to England.
Continued…
• The heirs to the throne were his two sons, however Edward’s
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brother Richard proclaimed himself king and locked his young
nephews in the Tower of London where they probably were
murdered.
Richard III lacked widespread support and fell to the forces of
Henry Tudor, a Lancaster noble, on the Bosworth Field in A.D.
1485 and became the first Tudor king and was known as King
Henry VII.
He eliminated royal claimants to the throne, increased royal
power over the nobles, and avoided costly foreign wars.
English monarchy emerged from the War of the Roses
strengthened with few challengers.
Spain
• In 1469 A.D. Ferdinand of Aragon and Isabella of Castile were
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married, but there kingdoms maintained separate
governments, and royal power was limited by local interest.
Christians, Jewish, and Muslims settling in Muslim areas had
their own laws and officials in Castile and Aragon and were
also royal charters allowed many towns to keep there courts
and local customs.
In Castile, the two monarch worked to strengthen royal power
by sending out officials to govern the towns and set up
special courts in the countryside to enforce royal laws.
In A.D. 1492 their armies forced the surrender of the last
Moorish stronghold at Granada.
Ferdinand and Isabelle wanted all Spaniards to be Catholic.
Spanish Jews and Moors were ordered to convert or leave.
Continued…
• The persecution and departure of many Jews and Moors
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weakened Spain’s economy and culture.
The Spanish monarchy set the Spanish Inquisitions to enforce
Catholic teaching.
It tortured, tried, and punished anyone suspected of heresy.
This strengthened the power of Spanish monarchs over their
people.
The Holy Roman Empire
• Made up of largely of German, Italian, and Slavic lands, and
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was Europe’s largest political unit.
This empire was farthest from achieving unity under a strong
monarch.
Emperors were elected by a diet, or assembly of mostly
German princes who governed their local territories as
independent rulers.
The German princes could reject or accept the emperors
request for taxes and soldiers.
In 1356 A.D. seven princes participate in the imperial
elections.
In 140s they began choosing emperors from the Hapsburgs,
which is a family of nobles based in Austria.
Continued…
• The Hapsburg emperors could not unify the empire, but were
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able to increase their prestige by securing other areas of
Europe.
One of Hapsburg most ambitious emperors was Maximilian I.
He was elected emperor in 1493, married Mary or Burgundy
and acquired present-day Belgium, the Netherlands, and
Luxembourg as part of Hapsburg inheritance.
His grandson, Charles, became emperor as Charles VI and
under him, the Hapsburg became the most powerful
European royal family, ruling Spain, Austria, Germany, the Low
countries (present-day Belgium, the Netherlands, and
Luxembourg), and much of Italy.
Eastern Europe
• In eastern Europe, between
present-day Germany and
Russia, the largest and most
powerful kingdoms were
Poland and Hungary.
Poland
• Poland was formed in the 900s A.D. by the West Slavs, and had
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accepted Roman Catholicism and close ties with western Europe.
The Poles fought groups of Teutonic Knights for controls of areas
of Poland near the Baltic sea around about 1000s A.D.
Poland’s golden age was around 13002 under King Casmir III,
who reduced the power of local nobles and formed a strong
central government.
In 1386 A.D. one of Casmir's successors, Queen Jadwiga married
Wladyslaw Jagiello who was the duke of neighboring Lithuania.
Their married united Lithuania and Poland creating one of the
largest states in medieval Europe.
This unity allowed Polish forces to defeat the Teutonic Knights at
the battle of Tannenburg in 1410 A.D.
Hungary
• Hungary is south of Poland and is made of Magyars, Germans,
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and Slavs.
In 1000 A.D. King Stephen I became a Roman Catholic and
introduced his people to western Europe ways and he marked
the beginning of a strong Hungarian monarchy.
Mongols from central Asia invaded Hungary in 1241 A.D. and
caused widespread destruction, but soon withdrew and the
kingdom was able to rebuild itself.
The Ottoman Turks periodically attacked Hungary during 1400
and 1500 A.D.
Hungary’s King Louis II was defeated by the Ottoman ruler
Suleiman I at the battle of Mochas.
Most of Hungary was ruled by the Ottomans, and the rest was
ruled by the Hapsburg emperors.
The Troubled Church
Section 4
• Many people turned to the Church
for comfort and reassurance because
of warfare, the plague, and religious
controversy in the Late Middle Ages.
• Thousands of religious people went
on pilgrimages which are journeys to
holy places and religious ceremonies
multiplied.
• However the authority of the Church
was weakening because of the
influences of strong monarchs and
national government.
• A growing educated middle class
towns people and questioning of the
Church’s teachings contributed to its
decline.
Babylonian Captivity
• The papacy came under the influence of the French monarchy
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during the early 1300s A.D.
In A.D. 1305 a French archbishop was elected Pope Clement
V.
Clement moved his court from Rome to Avignon, a small city
in southern France to escape the civil wars that were
disrupting Italy. The pope appointed only French cardinals and
he and his successors remained in Avignon until 1377 A.D.
This became known as the Babylonian Captivity after the
Jews exile in Babylon.
The people feared the papacy would be dominated by French
monarchs while the pope was in France.
The Avignon popes showed for increasing church taxes and
making church administration more efficient.
The people believed the popes had become corrupted by
worldly power and were neglecting their spiritual duties.
The Great Schism
• Pope Gregory XI left Avignon and returned to Rome in 1477
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A.D.
After his death, Roman mobs forced the College of Cardinals to
elect an Italian as pope.
The cardinals later declared the election invalid, saying that
they voted under pressure.
The cardinals then elected a second pope, who settled in
Avignon.
The Italian pope refused to resign, the Church faced being led
by two popes. This became known as the Great Schism (which
lasted from 1378 to 1417) because it caused serious divisions in
the Church and seriously undermined the pope’s authority.
Calls for a Council
• Many kings, princes, and church scholars called for a reform of
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church government.
The most popular idea was a general council, but this idea had
problems such as that councils were traditionally called by popes
and different rulers in Europe supported different popes.
Many western Europeans were committed to the church council.
The council met at Pisa, Italy, to unite the church under one pope.
This resulted in the election of a third pope.
In 1414 A.D. another council met at Constance, Germany to force
the resignation of the three popes and elected Pope Martin V,
ending the Great Schism.
However the Great Schism weakened the political influence of the
Church.
Europeans felt a greater sense of loyalty to their monarchs than to
the pope.
Calls for Reform
• Church authority was also weakened by the people’s disliked
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of abuses within the Church.
The clergy used many unpopular means to raise money by
fees charged for almost every type of service the Church
performed.
The clergy also sold church positions (which was called
simony) which was disliked by many common people.
The princely lifestyle of the clergy further deteriorated regard
for the Church.
Many Europeans called for a reform and to of the voices were
an English scholar and a Bohemian preacher.
John Wycliffe
• A scholar at England’s Oxford University.
• Criticized the Church’s wealth, corruption among the clergy,
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and the pope’s claim to absolute authority.
He wanted to remove church officials who corrupt or immoral.
Translated the bible to English.
His followers were known as the Lollards who destroyed
images of saints, ridiculed the Mass, and ate communion
bread with onions to show that it was no different from
ordinary bread.
Widespread antipapal feeling made it difficult for the English
government to suppress the Lollards.
Queen Anne, wife of Richard II supported the Lollards.
Wycliffe died peacefully in 1384 A.D.
Jan Hus
• The Slavs of Bohemia became known as the Czechs and wanted to
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end German control of their country and supported reforms in the
Catholic Church in Bohemia.
The leader of the Czech religious reform was Jan Hus, a popular
preacher and professor at the University of Prague.
When his works were condemned by the Church and political
leaders, a violent wave of riots swept across Bohemia.
The council at Constance demanded that Hus appear before them
to defend his views and the Holy Roman emperor promised safe
conduct to Constance, however this was ignored and Hus was
burned at the strake as a heretic.
His death caused many Czechs to rally around their new martyr.
From 1420 to 1436 A.D. his supporters known as the Hussites,
resisted the Church and the Holy Roman emperor.
Continued…
• The Church launched five crusades against the Hussites which
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the Hussites won.
In 1436 A.D. representatives of the pope and the Holy Roman
emperor reached a compromise with the Hussite leaders.
They gave the Hussites certain liberties in return for their
allegiance to the Church.
The ideas of Jan Hus continued throughout Europe and
influenced radical reformers.
The Church successfully met the challenges to its authority,
nut the basic spiritual questions raised by Hus and others did
not go away.
This Production has been
brought to you by…
Michel Kernizan