Download motivation-application

Motivation Concepts
Chapter # 7
Definition
 The process that account for an individual’s intensity,
direction and persistence of effort toward attaining a goal.
 Organizational goals
 Level of motivation varies between individuals and within
individuals at different times.
Early Theories
Hierarchy of Needs Theory
 Abraham Maslow
1.
Physiological
 Hunger, shelter, bodily needs
2.
Safety
 Security and protection
3.
Social
 Belongingness
4.
Esteem
 Self-respect, achievement
5.
Self-actualization
 Growth, self-fulfillment
Cont’d
 Lower-order needs
 Physiological, Safety & Social
 Higher order needs
 Esteem & self-actualization
 No empirical support
Theory X & Theory Y
 Douglas McGregor (No support)
 Two distinct views of human being
 Negative (Theory X)
 Positive (Theory Y)
 Theory X
 Employees inherently dislike work
 Directed/coerced
 Theory Y
 Work as natural as rest or play
 Average person accepts and seek responsibility
Two-Factor Theory
 Factors that lead to job satisfaction are different from factors
to job dissatisfaction
 Hygiene factors (Extrinsic, Dissatisfaction)
 quality of supervision, pay, company policies, physical working
conditions, job security & relationships.
 Emphasizing factors (Intrinsic, Satisfaction)
 Personal growth opportunities, recognition, responsibility &
achievement
McClelland’s Theory of Needs
 Need for Achievement
 Drive to excel, to achieve in relationship to a set of standards
 Need for Power
 Need to make others behave in a way they would not have
otherwise
 Need to affiliation
 Desire for friendly and close interpersonal relationships
Contemporary Theories
Self-Determination Theory
 People prefer to feel they have control over their action
 Volunteer Vs Paid Employee
 Cognitive evaluation theory
 Extrinsic rewards reduce intrinsic interest in a task
 A Salesman, Software writer
 Self-concordance
 Reasons for pursuing goals are consistent with interest and core
values
 Individuals-choose jobs carefully
Job Engagement
 The investment of an employee’s physical, cognitive and
emotional energies into job.
 Deeper level of commitment-match b/w individual's values
& those of organization's.
 More engaged employees is successful organizations
 Engaged employees lead to higher productivity, fewer safety
incidents, lower turnover.
Goal Setting Theory
 Intentions to work towards a goal are a major source of work
motivation
 Goals tell what needs to be done and how much effort is
needed
 Specific goals, Difficult goals when accepted, Feed back increase
performance.
 Specificity acts as an stimuli
Cont’d

Difficult goals are accepted for number of reasons
 Challenging goals get the attention and help focus
 It energizes for forking hard
 People persist in trying to attain them
 It leads to discover strategies that help perform the job more effectively.
 Feedback identifies discrepancies and guides behavior
 Self generated feedback is more powerful
Cont’d
 Three other factors that influence the goals-performance
relationship are:
 Goal commitment
 Task characteristics (Simple Vs Complex)
 MBO (Management by Objective)
 Goal specificity
 Participation in decision making
 An explicit time period
 Performance feedback
Self-Efficacy Theory
 Social cognitive theory
 Believe that an individual is capable of performing a task.
 In difficult situations,
 People with low self efficacy lessen their effort or give up
altogether
 People with high self-efficacy will try harder to master the
challenge, are more engaged which increases the performance.
 Individuals high in self-efficacy respond to negative feedback
with increased effort
 Self-efficacy & goal-setting theories complement each other
Cont’d
 Four ways Self-efficacy can be increased
 Enactive mastery
 Vicarious modeling
 Verbal persuasion
 Arousal-energized state
Reinforcement Theory
 Behavioristic View
 Behavior as environmentally caused; no internal cognitive
events; reinforces control behavior.
 Reinforcement strengthens a behavior and increases the
likelihood that it will be repeated
 Not a motivational theory in pure sense
 Operant Conditioning Theory
 People learn to behave to get something they want or to avoid
something they don't want
Cont’d
 According to B. F Skinner,
 People will most likely engage in desired behaviors if they are
positively reinforced for doing so; rewards are most effective if
they immediately follow the desired response; behavior that is
not rewarded or is punished is less likely to be repeated.
 Class participation
 In its pure form, the reinforcement theory ignores feelings,
attitudes, expectations
Equity Theory
 Employees perceive what they get from a job situation
(salary, raises, recognition) in relationship to what they put
into it (effort, experience, education, competence)
 Compare the outcome-input ratio with that of others
 The ratio is equal, fairness and equity prevails
 The ratio is unequal, equity tension prevails
Cont’d
 Moderating Variables
 Gender
 Length of tenure
 Level in the organization
 Education/professionalism
Cont’d
 Inequity leads to one of the following choices:






Change inputs (exert less effort if under paid)
Change outcomes
Distort perception of self
Distort perceptions of others
Choose a different referent
Quit
 Organizational Justice
 Distributive justice
 Procedural justice
 Interactional justice (Dignity, concern, respect)
Expectancy Theory
 If I give a maximum effort, will be recognized in my
performance appraisal?
 If I get a good performance appraisal, will it lead to
organizational rewards?
 If I am rewarded, are the rewards attractive to me?
 The strength of our tendency to act a certain way depends on
the strength of our expectation of a given outcome and its
attractiveness
Cont’d
 Effort-performance relationship
 Performance-reward relationship
 Rewards-personal goals relationship
Motivation: From concept to
application
Chapter # 8
The Job Characteristics Model
 Describes a job in terms of five core job dimensions
 Skill Variety
 Variety of different activities so the worker can use a number of
different skills and talents
 Task Identity
 Job requires completion of a whole and identifiable piece of
work
 Task Significance
 Job affects the lives or work of other people
Cont’d
 Autonomy
 Job provides the worker freedom, independence and discretion
in scheduling work and determining the procedures in carrying
it out
 Feedback
 Carrying out work activities generates direct and clear
information about performance
 Skill variety, task identity & task significance lead to
experienced meaningfulness of the work that leads to high
internal work motivation
Cont’d
 Autonomy leads to responsibility that leads to satisfaction
 Feedback leads to knowledge of actual results that leads to
low turnover and absenteeism
Redesigning Jobs
 Job Rotation-Periodic shifting of an employee from one task
to another with similar skill requirements at the same
organizational level
 Reduces boredom, increases motivation, understands
contribution to the organization
 Job Enrichment
 Expands jobs by increasing the degree to which the worker
controls the planning, execution and evaluation of the work.
 An enriched job organizes tasks to allow the worker to do a
complete activity, increases employee’s freedom and
independence, increases responsibility and provides feedback.
Alternate Work Arrangements
 Flextime
 Job Sharing
 Telecommuting
Employee Involvement
 Participative process that uses employee’s input to increase
their commitment to the organization’s success
 The autonomy motivates, increases the commitment, more
productive and high satisfaction
Employee Involvement Programs
 Participative management
 Joint decision making between subordinates and supervisors
 Relevant to the interest, have competence and knowledge
 Higher stock returns, lower turnover and high productivity to
some extent
 Representative participation
 Worker are represented by a small group of employees who
actually participate
 Works council & board representatives
Rewards to Motivate Employees
 Pay might not be the primary factor for driving satisfaction,
but it does motivate people
 What to Pay: Establishing a Pay Structure
 Initially pay setting depends on two factors:
 Internal equity: the worth of the job
 External equity: relative to the market
 More pay, better qualified, motivated and longer tenure
individuals
 Paying too much leads to expensive products
Cont’d
 How to Pay: Rewarding Individual Employees Through Variable
Pay Program
 Variable pay programs base a portion of employee’s pay on some
individual/organizational measure of performance
 Earning fluctuates up and down
 Turning fixed labor into variable labor cost reduces expenses for
firms if performance declines
 Piece-rate Pay
 Merit-based Pay: Based on performance appraisal ratings
 If designed correctly, merit-based plans let individuals perceive a
strong relationship between their performance and their rewards
Cont’d
 Bonuses
 When times are good, bonuses’ amount can be raised and vice
versa
 Down side: Employee’s pay is more vulnerable to cuts
 Skill-based pay
 Profit-sharing plans
 Distributed around company’s profitability
 Can be direct cash outlays or stock options
 Employee Stock Ownership Plan
 Employee’s acquire stock, often at lower market price
 Increase employee satisfaction and innovation
Cont’d
 Flexible Benefits: Developing a Benefit Package
 They individualize rewards by allowing each employee to
choose the compensation package that best satisfies
 Modular plans: Predesigned packages, each of which meet
the need of specific group
 Core Plus Plans: Core of essential benefits and a menu like
selection of other to select from.
Cont’d
 Intrinsic Rewards: Employee Recognition Programs
 Inexpensive since the praise is free!