Download Unit 11: Classification and a very Brief Survey of Kingdoms

Unit 11: Classification and Survey of Kingdoms
Honors Biology
Taxonomy
 Branch of biology concerned with ____________________________________________________ organisms.
 Naming and identifying organisms began with the ______________________________________.
 _______________________________, organisms were described using _______________ Latin descriptions.
 Much later, ____________________, a British naturalist argued that each organism should have a set name.
The Dichotomous Key:
 device for ______________________________________ an unknown organism, set up as a sequence of
choices (usually) between _____________________________________
o ____________________________, which are based on characteristics of the organism.
 By making the correct _______________________, the name of the organism will be revealed.
A Sample Dichotomous Key:
• couplets together
1a. Flower open with distinct petals .....................................................................go to 2
1b. Flower neither open nor has distinct petals ........................................................ Aquilegia
2a. Petals usually striped to tip; multiple filaments project just outside of center ...............Clematis
2b. Petals faint or no striping; no filaments outside of center…………………………….................. go to 3
3a. Pollen held close to center............................................................................. Ranuculus
3b. Pollen on stamens away from center .................................................................Anemone
Constructing Keys
 Use _________________________________________________
 Use __________________________________
 Make the choice a _________________________ one - something "is" instead of "is not".
 If possible, start the couplet with the ______________________________________.
 If possible, start different couplets with _________________________________________.
Using a Key
 Always read ___________________________________, even if the first seems to be the logical one at first.
 Be sure you understand the meaning of the ________________ involved. When measurements are given,
measure
 If the choice is not clear, for whatever reason, ____________________________________. If you end up
with two possible answers, read descriptions of the two choices to help you decide.
The Binomial System
 ____________________________________ (1701-1778) developed a binomial system to name species.
 A binomial system of nomenclature names organisms using a __________________________________ name.
o First part is the genus; closely related species are assigned to the same genus.
o Second part is the ___________________________________; it usually provides something
descriptive about an organism, its discoverer, or where it was discovered (this part is also called
the species part of the name)
o A scientific name consists of both ________________ and _______________________________
(e.g., Lilium buibiferum and Lilium canadense).
o Both names are ___________________________if in print or ___________________________if
handwritten; the _________________________________ of only the genus is capitalized.
o The _________________________ can be abbreviated when used with a specific epithet if the full
name was given before.
Linnaeus’s System of Classification
_____________________________ King
Modern biologists have added the
_____________________________ Phillip
taxon _________________ above
_____________________________ Came
the level of Kingdom
_____________________________ Over
_____________________________ From
_____________________________ Germany
_____________________________ Singing
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Classification of Ursus arctos horribilis
Domain
______________________________________________
Kingdom
______________________________________________
Phylum
______________________________________________
Class
______________________________________________
Order
______________________________________________
Family
______________________________________________
Genus
______________________________________________
Species
______________________________________________
Subspecies
______________________________________________
Common names
 vary with different ______________________________________
 lump _________________________ under one name
 have _______________________________ for the same species
 _________________________ may refer to different organisms in different regions.
Naming
 The job of naming is ____________________________.
 _______________________________ species live on Earth.
 __________ million species of animals and a _____________million plant species are named
 Some groups, such as birds, are nearly all known; some ___________________ groups, _________________,
and ______________________ are mostly unknown.
 As more molecular evidence is gathered, entire ___________________________________ branches must be
moved to reflect new information
What Is a Species?
 Linnaeus considered each species to have a ___________________________________ that made it distinct.
o Distinguishing species on structure can be a problem because __________________________ occur
among members.
o Males and females may have ___________________________________, as well as juveniles and
adults.
 The biological definition of a species states a species can _________________________ and share the same
_________________________.
 Distinguishing species on the basis of reproductive isolation can also be a problem
o Some species do not reproduce ___________________________.
o Some species _______________________________.
o __________________________________________ can be difficult to observe.
 When a species has a __________________________________________, variant types may tend to
interbreed where they overlap; these populations may be named as _____________________.
o The _______________________________ Elaphe obsoleta obsoleta and Elaphe obsoleta bairdi are
subspecies of Elaphe obsoleta.
o Including the subspecies makes this a ___________________________, or three-part, name.
From the standpoint of classification:
 categories are established to assign species on the basis of their ____________________________ to other
species.
 Species is a ____________________________________ below the rank of genus.
 Species share a more ________________________________________________ with species in same genus
than with those in other taxa.
 A ______________________ is a group of organisms in a classification category; Rosa or Felis are taxa at
the genus level.
 A common ancestor is valid if there are ___________________________________ of common descent
Classification Categories
 We use ___________________ categories (taxons) for classification: species, genus, family, order, class,
phylum (or division for plants), kingdom, and domain
 The higher the category, the more __________________________ it is.
 Members of a domain share __________________________________; members of a species share
_________________________ characters.
o Characters are any __________________________________________________________ feature that
distinguishes groups.
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
Additional levels of classification can be added by adding ____________________________________- (e.g.,
suborder).
Homology
 Homology is a character similarity due to having a ________________________________.
 _________________________________________ are related to each other through common descent but
may differ in structure and function (e.g., the forelimbs of a horse and the wings of a bat)
o ____________________________________ have the same function but are not derived from the
same organ in a common ancestor (e.g., the wings of an insect and the wings of a bat).
o _____________________________ helps indicate when species belong to a related group.
Molecular Data
 Speciation occurs when __________________________ bring about changes in base pair sequences of DNA
 Each __________________________________________ accumulates changes in DNA base pair sequences
and amino acid sequences in proteins over time.
 Molecular changes are ________________________________ and can sometimes sort out relationships
obscured by convergence.
 Advances in analyzing ___________________________ and ________________________________ sequences
make abundant data available to researchers.
Example
 ________________ evolution
o Chinese giant panda resembles a _______________, has a ___________________________, but
bones and teeth resembled a raccoon
o The red panda has similar features but lacks the ____________________________
o Results of DNA hybridization suggest the giant panda diverged from the ______________________
and the red panda diverged from the _______________________________________.
Cladistic Systematics
 Cladistics analyzes __________________________ and ___________________________ characters and
constructs cladograms on the basis of shared derived characters
 ______________________________ is a diagram showing relationships among species based on shared,
derived characters.
 Constructing a Cladogram
o First step is to construct a table of __________________________ of the taxa being compared.
o ____________________________ shared by certain lineages are shared derived characters.
o A ____________________ is an evolutionary branch that includes a common ancestor and all its
descendent species.
Some Definitions
 Classification reflects _________________________; one goal of systematics is to create
_________________________ trees.
o ______________________________ is the study of the diversity of organisms using information from
cellular to population levels
o Phylogeny is the ____________________________________ of a group of organisms.
o A phylogenetic tree indicates _________________________________________ and lines of descent.
 A ____________________________________ is a trait that is present in a common ancestor and all
members of a group
 An _______________________ is a taxon that is outside the group of interest; it is included for comparison
 A ____________________________________ is present only in a specific line of descent.
o Different lineages diverging from a common ancestor may have different _____________________
characters
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
Each larger circle represents a group of _________________________________; the smaller circles are
groups that share a set of derived characters
Traditional Systematics Versus Cladistics
 Traditional Classification is based on structural similarities, without an attempt to find _________________
or evolutionary relationships.
 Cladistics, or evolutionary classification, bases classification on _____________________________, such as
the molted skeleton and segmentation found in all crustaceans. Cladistics attempts to classify based on
_______________________________________________ history. The diagram produced is a cladogram.
Three-Domain System
 Sequencing of _______________ suggests all organisms evolved along three distinct lineages: domains
Bacteria, Archaea, and Eukarya.
 Bacteria diverged first; Archaea and Eukarya are more _______________________________ than either is to
bacteria.
 The archaea live in extreme environments:
o ________________________________ in anaerobic swamps
o __________________________ in salt lakes
o ____________________________ in hot acidic environments
Domain Bacteria; Kingdom Eubacteria
 _______________________________________
 Cell walls
o Thick, rigid, contain ______________________________
 _______________________________ by photosynthesis, or Heterotrophic
 Some require oxygen (_____________________); others are killed by oxygen (_________________________)
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
Examples : ___________________________________, Mycobacterium ________________________,
_______________________ enteridis
Domain Archaea : Kingdom Archaebacteria
 _____________________________ and __________________________
 Cell walls ________________________________________
 Autotroph or ______________________________
 Aerobic and ___________________________ forms
 Habitats
o live in _________________________ environments
o Arctic Ice, geysers, _________________________________, brine (like the Great Salt Lake), deep
ocean volcanic vents
Domain Eukarya : Kingdom Protista
 ________________________________ organisms not classified as plants, animals, or fungi
 Most ________________________________, some multicellular
 Cell wall with _________________________________ (most)
 ________________________________ by photosynthesis, or Heterotrophic
 A ____________________________________category to put organisms that do not fit elsewhere; most likely
to be revised in near future
Domain Eukarya : Kingdom Fungi
 ________________________________ and Unicellular
 Cell walls of ________________
 Heterotrophic by ________________________________; secrete digestive enzymes into food, then absorb
usable molecules
 Examples : ______________________________________________________
Domain Eukarya : Kingdom Plantae
 ________________________________ and ________________________
 Cell walls made of ______________________________
 _______________________________autotrophs
 Food stored as _______________________
 Examples: _______________________________________________________________
Domain Eukarya : Kingdom Animalia
 Multicellular; mostly ______________________
 ______________________________________
 __________________________________ by ingestion
 Examples: _____________________________________________________________________, earthworms,
mollusks, arthropods, starfish, frogs
In Depth: Bacteria and Viruses
Domain Bacteria
• Bacteria occur in many shapes and sizes. Most bacteria have one of _________________________________:
rod-shaped, sphere-shaped, or spiral-shaped.
• Rod-shaped bacteria are called ____________________________________________. An example of bacilli is
Escherichia coli.
• Sphere-shaped bacteria are called ____________________________________________ An example of cocci
is Micrococcus luteus.
• Spiral shaped bacteria are called ____________________________________________ An example of spirilla
bacteria includes Spirillum volutans.
• Cocci that form chains similar to a string of beads are called ______________________________.
• Cocci that form clusters similar to a bunch of grapes are called ______________________________.
Gram Stain
• Most species of bacteria are classified into two categories based on the ______________________________
as determined by a technique called the Gram stain.
• Gram-______________ bacteria have a thick layer of ________________________ in their cell wall, and
they appear _________________ under a microscope after the Gram-staining procedure.
• Gram-___________________ bacteria have a _____________________ of peptidoglycan in their cell wall,
and they appear ____________________________ under a microscope after the Gram-staining procedure.
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Gram Stain Visual Concept Notes:
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
Important Bacterial Groups:
• Bacteria are also classified by their biochemical properties and evolutionary relationships.
• Proteobacteria
– one of the largest and ___________________________ groups of bacteria, and contain several
subgroups that are extremely diverse.
– Members of this group include bacteria of the genus ___________________, the genus
________________________, and the bacterium Escherichia coli.
– Gram-Positive Bacteria
– Not all of the bacteria in this group are Gram-positive. Biologists place a few species of Gramnegative bacteria in this group because these species are genetically similar to Gram-positive
bacteria.
– Members of this group include the _______________________________ species, Clostridium
botulinum, ___________________________________, and members of the genus Mycobacteria.
– _______________________ are Gram-positive bacteria, some species of which produce antibiotics.
• chemicals that _________________________ the growth of or _____________ other
bacteria. Streptomycin and ________________________________ are examples of
antibiotics that are used medicinally.
• __________________________ use photosynthesis to get energy from sunlight, and make
carbohydrates from water and carbon dioxide. During this process, they create oxygen as a waste
product.
• Once called _________________________________, cyanobacteria are now known to be
bacteria because they lack a membrane-bound nucleus and chloroplasts.
– ______________________________ are Gram-____________________, spiral-shaped bacteria that
move by means of a corkscrew-like rotation. Some are aerobic.
– Spirochetes can live freely or as pathogens. Pathogenic spirochetes include Treponema
pallidum, the causative agent of syphilis, and ______________________________, which
causes Lyme disease
– Gram-negative _________________________ pathogens of the group ______________________ live
only inside animal cells. The cell walls of chlamydia do not have peptidoglycan. Chlamydia
trachomatis causes the sexually transmitted infection called chlamydia
Structure and Function
• The major structures of a prokaryotic cell include a cell wall, a cell membrane, cytoplasm, ribosomes, and
sometimes a _____________________________________________________, and flagella.
• Cell Wall
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Most prokaryotes have a cell wall. _________________________ cell walls contain peptidoglycan.
__________________ cell walls do not have peptidoglycan; instead, some contain pseudomurein, a
compound made of unusual lipids and amino acids.
Cell Membrane and Cytoplasm
– Bacterial and archaeal cell membranes are _______________________________that have proteins.
However, the lipids and proteins of archaeal cell walls differ from those of bacterial cell walls.
– The ______________________________ is a semifluid solution that contains ribosomes, DNA, small
organic and inorganic molecules, and ions.
DNA
– Prokaryotic DNA is a ____________________________________ of double-stranded DNA attached at
one point to the cell membrane.
– Along with a single main chromosome, some prokaryotes have __________________, which are
small, circular, self-replicating loops of double-stranded DNA.
Capsules and Pili
– Many bacteria have an outer covering of polysaccharides called a _____________________ that
protects the cell against drying, pathogens, or harsh chemicals.
– Pili are short, ___________________________________________ on the surface of some bacteria
that help bacteria connect to each other and to surfaces, such as those of a host cell.
Endospores
– Some Gram-positive bacteria can form a thick-coated, resistant structure called an
________________________ when environmental conditions become harsh.
Prokaryotic Movement
– Many prokaryotes have long ________________________ that allow the prokaryotes to move toward
food sources or away from danger.
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Nutrition and Metabolism
• ____________________________ obtain nutrients either from the nonliving environment or by utilizing the
products or bodies of living organisms.
– ______________________ obtain carbon from other organisms.
– ______________________ obtain their carbon from CO2.
– ______________________ get energy from chemicals in the environment.
Reproduction and recombination
• Genetic recombination in bacteria can occur by the following _______________________:
– _________________________ (taking in DNA from the outside environment)
– _________________________ (exchanging DNA with other bacteria via pili)
– _________________________ (transmission of bacterial DNA via viruses).
Bacteria and Health
• Antibiotics and Antibiotic Resistance
– A mutation in the DNA of a single bacterium can confer ______________________ to an antibiotic.
– Cells with the mutant gene have a ____________________________ when the antibiotic is present.
– ______________________ cells take over the population when the normal cells die.
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– This is a common example of evolution that is easily observed within a ________________________
Emerging Infectious Diseases Caused by Bacteria
– The number of certain bacterial diseases has increased because of the increase in the number of
______________________________________ bacteria, the _____________________________ into
previously untouched areas, and ___________________________________.
Bacteria and Industry
• Many species of bacteria are used to
• produce and process different ___________________,
• produce industrial _____________________,
• ______________ for minerals,
• produce _________________________,
• ________________________ up chemical and oil spills.
• Biologists have learned to harness bacteria to recycle compounds in a process called
_____________________________, which uses bacteria to break down pollutants.
Discovery of Viruses
• Researchers in the ________________ discovered that something smaller than bacteria could cause disease.
• In 1935, Wendell Stanley demonstrated that viruses were not cells when he crystallized TMV, the virus that
causes _______________________________________________ in tobacco and tomato plants.
Characteristics of Viruses
• Viral Size and Structure
• Viruses are ______________________________________ containing _______________________ and are
surrounded by a protein coat called a ___________________
• Some viruses also have an ___________________________ that is derived from a host cell’s nuclear
membrane or cell membrane.
• Classification of Viruses
• Viruses can be _________________________ based on whether they have RNA or DNA, whether the RNA
or DNA is single or double stranded and circular or linear, by capsid shape, and whether or not they
have an envelope.
Vectors of Viral Diseases
• Vectors, or _________________________, of viral diseases include humans, animals, and insects.
Human Viral Diseases
• Viruses cause many human diseases, including the _____________________________________, hepatitis,
rabies, chickenpox, certain types of ______________________________________________.
• Chickenpox and Shingles
• Chickenpox and shingles are caused by the same ___________________________________________
• Hepatitis, or ________________________________________, can be caused by at least five viruses.
• Hepatitis A and hepatitis E can be spread by ________________________________ food and water.
• Hepatitis B, C, and D are spread by _____________________ contact, by contact with infected
________________________________, and by the use of contaminated _______________________.
• Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS)
• The human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) is an ______________________ spread by
• ________________________ contact
• contact with infected _______________________
• from ________________________________________
• HIV targets _______________________________ and thus damages the body’s immune system. The
disease called ____________________________________________________________ (AIDS) results.
• Viruses and Cancer
• Some viruses contain ________________________________ that can cause cancer, while other
viruses ________________ proto-oncogenes, which usually control cell growth, to oncogenes.
• The ______________________________________ (HPV) causes genital warts and 93% of all
cervical cancers
Emerging Viral Diseases
• Emerging viruses usually infect animals __________________________________________ but can jump to
humans when contact occurs in the environment.
– “Jump” means that the virus has _________________________________________________________
• The mutation usually occurs _______________________________________ the virus has an
opportunity to infect humans
• The ______________________________ has been very important in the evolutionary history
of viruses
•
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