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Unit 11: Classification and Survey of Kingdoms Honors Biology Taxonomy Branch of biology concerned with ____________________________________________________ organisms. Naming and identifying organisms began with the ______________________________________. _______________________________, organisms were described using _______________ Latin descriptions. Much later, ____________________, a British naturalist argued that each organism should have a set name. The Dichotomous Key: device for ______________________________________ an unknown organism, set up as a sequence of choices (usually) between _____________________________________ o ____________________________, which are based on characteristics of the organism. By making the correct _______________________, the name of the organism will be revealed. A Sample Dichotomous Key: • couplets together 1a. Flower open with distinct petals .....................................................................go to 2 1b. Flower neither open nor has distinct petals ........................................................ Aquilegia 2a. Petals usually striped to tip; multiple filaments project just outside of center ...............Clematis 2b. Petals faint or no striping; no filaments outside of center…………………………….................. go to 3 3a. Pollen held close to center............................................................................. Ranuculus 3b. Pollen on stamens away from center .................................................................Anemone Constructing Keys Use _________________________________________________ Use __________________________________ Make the choice a _________________________ one - something "is" instead of "is not". If possible, start the couplet with the ______________________________________. If possible, start different couplets with _________________________________________. Using a Key Always read ___________________________________, even if the first seems to be the logical one at first. Be sure you understand the meaning of the ________________ involved. When measurements are given, measure If the choice is not clear, for whatever reason, ____________________________________. If you end up with two possible answers, read descriptions of the two choices to help you decide. The Binomial System ____________________________________ (1701-1778) developed a binomial system to name species. A binomial system of nomenclature names organisms using a __________________________________ name. o First part is the genus; closely related species are assigned to the same genus. o Second part is the ___________________________________; it usually provides something descriptive about an organism, its discoverer, or where it was discovered (this part is also called the species part of the name) o A scientific name consists of both ________________ and _______________________________ (e.g., Lilium buibiferum and Lilium canadense). o Both names are ___________________________if in print or ___________________________if handwritten; the _________________________________ of only the genus is capitalized. o The _________________________ can be abbreviated when used with a specific epithet if the full name was given before. Linnaeus’s System of Classification _____________________________ King Modern biologists have added the _____________________________ Phillip taxon _________________ above _____________________________ Came the level of Kingdom _____________________________ Over _____________________________ From _____________________________ Germany _____________________________ Singing 1|Page Classification of Ursus arctos horribilis Domain ______________________________________________ Kingdom ______________________________________________ Phylum ______________________________________________ Class ______________________________________________ Order ______________________________________________ Family ______________________________________________ Genus ______________________________________________ Species ______________________________________________ Subspecies ______________________________________________ Common names vary with different ______________________________________ lump _________________________ under one name have _______________________________ for the same species _________________________ may refer to different organisms in different regions. Naming The job of naming is ____________________________. _______________________________ species live on Earth. __________ million species of animals and a _____________million plant species are named Some groups, such as birds, are nearly all known; some ___________________ groups, _________________, and ______________________ are mostly unknown. As more molecular evidence is gathered, entire ___________________________________ branches must be moved to reflect new information What Is a Species? Linnaeus considered each species to have a ___________________________________ that made it distinct. o Distinguishing species on structure can be a problem because __________________________ occur among members. o Males and females may have ___________________________________, as well as juveniles and adults. The biological definition of a species states a species can _________________________ and share the same _________________________. Distinguishing species on the basis of reproductive isolation can also be a problem o Some species do not reproduce ___________________________. o Some species _______________________________. o __________________________________________ can be difficult to observe. When a species has a __________________________________________, variant types may tend to interbreed where they overlap; these populations may be named as _____________________. o The _______________________________ Elaphe obsoleta obsoleta and Elaphe obsoleta bairdi are subspecies of Elaphe obsoleta. o Including the subspecies makes this a ___________________________, or three-part, name. From the standpoint of classification: categories are established to assign species on the basis of their ____________________________ to other species. Species is a ____________________________________ below the rank of genus. Species share a more ________________________________________________ with species in same genus than with those in other taxa. A ______________________ is a group of organisms in a classification category; Rosa or Felis are taxa at the genus level. A common ancestor is valid if there are ___________________________________ of common descent Classification Categories We use ___________________ categories (taxons) for classification: species, genus, family, order, class, phylum (or division for plants), kingdom, and domain The higher the category, the more __________________________ it is. Members of a domain share __________________________________; members of a species share _________________________ characters. o Characters are any __________________________________________________________ feature that distinguishes groups. 2|Page Additional levels of classification can be added by adding ____________________________________- (e.g., suborder). Homology Homology is a character similarity due to having a ________________________________. _________________________________________ are related to each other through common descent but may differ in structure and function (e.g., the forelimbs of a horse and the wings of a bat) o ____________________________________ have the same function but are not derived from the same organ in a common ancestor (e.g., the wings of an insect and the wings of a bat). o _____________________________ helps indicate when species belong to a related group. Molecular Data Speciation occurs when __________________________ bring about changes in base pair sequences of DNA Each __________________________________________ accumulates changes in DNA base pair sequences and amino acid sequences in proteins over time. Molecular changes are ________________________________ and can sometimes sort out relationships obscured by convergence. Advances in analyzing ___________________________ and ________________________________ sequences make abundant data available to researchers. Example ________________ evolution o Chinese giant panda resembles a _______________, has a ___________________________, but bones and teeth resembled a raccoon o The red panda has similar features but lacks the ____________________________ o Results of DNA hybridization suggest the giant panda diverged from the ______________________ and the red panda diverged from the _______________________________________. Cladistic Systematics Cladistics analyzes __________________________ and ___________________________ characters and constructs cladograms on the basis of shared derived characters ______________________________ is a diagram showing relationships among species based on shared, derived characters. Constructing a Cladogram o First step is to construct a table of __________________________ of the taxa being compared. o ____________________________ shared by certain lineages are shared derived characters. o A ____________________ is an evolutionary branch that includes a common ancestor and all its descendent species. Some Definitions Classification reflects _________________________; one goal of systematics is to create _________________________ trees. o ______________________________ is the study of the diversity of organisms using information from cellular to population levels o Phylogeny is the ____________________________________ of a group of organisms. o A phylogenetic tree indicates _________________________________________ and lines of descent. A ____________________________________ is a trait that is present in a common ancestor and all members of a group An _______________________ is a taxon that is outside the group of interest; it is included for comparison A ____________________________________ is present only in a specific line of descent. o Different lineages diverging from a common ancestor may have different _____________________ characters 3|Page Each larger circle represents a group of _________________________________; the smaller circles are groups that share a set of derived characters Traditional Systematics Versus Cladistics Traditional Classification is based on structural similarities, without an attempt to find _________________ or evolutionary relationships. Cladistics, or evolutionary classification, bases classification on _____________________________, such as the molted skeleton and segmentation found in all crustaceans. Cladistics attempts to classify based on _______________________________________________ history. The diagram produced is a cladogram. Three-Domain System Sequencing of _______________ suggests all organisms evolved along three distinct lineages: domains Bacteria, Archaea, and Eukarya. Bacteria diverged first; Archaea and Eukarya are more _______________________________ than either is to bacteria. The archaea live in extreme environments: o ________________________________ in anaerobic swamps o __________________________ in salt lakes o ____________________________ in hot acidic environments Domain Bacteria; Kingdom Eubacteria _______________________________________ Cell walls o Thick, rigid, contain ______________________________ _______________________________ by photosynthesis, or Heterotrophic Some require oxygen (_____________________); others are killed by oxygen (_________________________) 4|Page Examples : ___________________________________, Mycobacterium ________________________, _______________________ enteridis Domain Archaea : Kingdom Archaebacteria _____________________________ and __________________________ Cell walls ________________________________________ Autotroph or ______________________________ Aerobic and ___________________________ forms Habitats o live in _________________________ environments o Arctic Ice, geysers, _________________________________, brine (like the Great Salt Lake), deep ocean volcanic vents Domain Eukarya : Kingdom Protista ________________________________ organisms not classified as plants, animals, or fungi Most ________________________________, some multicellular Cell wall with _________________________________ (most) ________________________________ by photosynthesis, or Heterotrophic A ____________________________________category to put organisms that do not fit elsewhere; most likely to be revised in near future Domain Eukarya : Kingdom Fungi ________________________________ and Unicellular Cell walls of ________________ Heterotrophic by ________________________________; secrete digestive enzymes into food, then absorb usable molecules Examples : ______________________________________________________ Domain Eukarya : Kingdom Plantae ________________________________ and ________________________ Cell walls made of ______________________________ _______________________________autotrophs Food stored as _______________________ Examples: _______________________________________________________________ Domain Eukarya : Kingdom Animalia Multicellular; mostly ______________________ ______________________________________ __________________________________ by ingestion Examples: _____________________________________________________________________, earthworms, mollusks, arthropods, starfish, frogs In Depth: Bacteria and Viruses Domain Bacteria • Bacteria occur in many shapes and sizes. Most bacteria have one of _________________________________: rod-shaped, sphere-shaped, or spiral-shaped. • Rod-shaped bacteria are called ____________________________________________. An example of bacilli is Escherichia coli. • Sphere-shaped bacteria are called ____________________________________________ An example of cocci is Micrococcus luteus. • Spiral shaped bacteria are called ____________________________________________ An example of spirilla bacteria includes Spirillum volutans. • Cocci that form chains similar to a string of beads are called ______________________________. • Cocci that form clusters similar to a bunch of grapes are called ______________________________. Gram Stain • Most species of bacteria are classified into two categories based on the ______________________________ as determined by a technique called the Gram stain. • Gram-______________ bacteria have a thick layer of ________________________ in their cell wall, and they appear _________________ under a microscope after the Gram-staining procedure. • Gram-___________________ bacteria have a _____________________ of peptidoglycan in their cell wall, and they appear ____________________________ under a microscope after the Gram-staining procedure. 5|Page Gram Stain Visual Concept Notes: _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ Important Bacterial Groups: • Bacteria are also classified by their biochemical properties and evolutionary relationships. • Proteobacteria – one of the largest and ___________________________ groups of bacteria, and contain several subgroups that are extremely diverse. – Members of this group include bacteria of the genus ___________________, the genus ________________________, and the bacterium Escherichia coli. – Gram-Positive Bacteria – Not all of the bacteria in this group are Gram-positive. Biologists place a few species of Gramnegative bacteria in this group because these species are genetically similar to Gram-positive bacteria. – Members of this group include the _______________________________ species, Clostridium botulinum, ___________________________________, and members of the genus Mycobacteria. – _______________________ are Gram-positive bacteria, some species of which produce antibiotics. • chemicals that _________________________ the growth of or _____________ other bacteria. Streptomycin and ________________________________ are examples of antibiotics that are used medicinally. • __________________________ use photosynthesis to get energy from sunlight, and make carbohydrates from water and carbon dioxide. During this process, they create oxygen as a waste product. • Once called _________________________________, cyanobacteria are now known to be bacteria because they lack a membrane-bound nucleus and chloroplasts. – ______________________________ are Gram-____________________, spiral-shaped bacteria that move by means of a corkscrew-like rotation. Some are aerobic. – Spirochetes can live freely or as pathogens. Pathogenic spirochetes include Treponema pallidum, the causative agent of syphilis, and ______________________________, which causes Lyme disease – Gram-negative _________________________ pathogens of the group ______________________ live only inside animal cells. The cell walls of chlamydia do not have peptidoglycan. Chlamydia trachomatis causes the sexually transmitted infection called chlamydia Structure and Function • The major structures of a prokaryotic cell include a cell wall, a cell membrane, cytoplasm, ribosomes, and sometimes a _____________________________________________________, and flagella. • Cell Wall 6|Page Most prokaryotes have a cell wall. _________________________ cell walls contain peptidoglycan. __________________ cell walls do not have peptidoglycan; instead, some contain pseudomurein, a compound made of unusual lipids and amino acids. Cell Membrane and Cytoplasm – Bacterial and archaeal cell membranes are _______________________________that have proteins. However, the lipids and proteins of archaeal cell walls differ from those of bacterial cell walls. – The ______________________________ is a semifluid solution that contains ribosomes, DNA, small organic and inorganic molecules, and ions. DNA – Prokaryotic DNA is a ____________________________________ of double-stranded DNA attached at one point to the cell membrane. – Along with a single main chromosome, some prokaryotes have __________________, which are small, circular, self-replicating loops of double-stranded DNA. Capsules and Pili – Many bacteria have an outer covering of polysaccharides called a _____________________ that protects the cell against drying, pathogens, or harsh chemicals. – Pili are short, ___________________________________________ on the surface of some bacteria that help bacteria connect to each other and to surfaces, such as those of a host cell. Endospores – Some Gram-positive bacteria can form a thick-coated, resistant structure called an ________________________ when environmental conditions become harsh. Prokaryotic Movement – Many prokaryotes have long ________________________ that allow the prokaryotes to move toward food sources or away from danger. – – – • – • • Nutrition and Metabolism • ____________________________ obtain nutrients either from the nonliving environment or by utilizing the products or bodies of living organisms. – ______________________ obtain carbon from other organisms. – ______________________ obtain their carbon from CO2. – ______________________ get energy from chemicals in the environment. Reproduction and recombination • Genetic recombination in bacteria can occur by the following _______________________: – _________________________ (taking in DNA from the outside environment) – _________________________ (exchanging DNA with other bacteria via pili) – _________________________ (transmission of bacterial DNA via viruses). Bacteria and Health • Antibiotics and Antibiotic Resistance – A mutation in the DNA of a single bacterium can confer ______________________ to an antibiotic. – Cells with the mutant gene have a ____________________________ when the antibiotic is present. – ______________________ cells take over the population when the normal cells die. 7|Page – This is a common example of evolution that is easily observed within a ________________________ Emerging Infectious Diseases Caused by Bacteria – The number of certain bacterial diseases has increased because of the increase in the number of ______________________________________ bacteria, the _____________________________ into previously untouched areas, and ___________________________________. Bacteria and Industry • Many species of bacteria are used to • produce and process different ___________________, • produce industrial _____________________, • ______________ for minerals, • produce _________________________, • ________________________ up chemical and oil spills. • Biologists have learned to harness bacteria to recycle compounds in a process called _____________________________, which uses bacteria to break down pollutants. Discovery of Viruses • Researchers in the ________________ discovered that something smaller than bacteria could cause disease. • In 1935, Wendell Stanley demonstrated that viruses were not cells when he crystallized TMV, the virus that causes _______________________________________________ in tobacco and tomato plants. Characteristics of Viruses • Viral Size and Structure • Viruses are ______________________________________ containing _______________________ and are surrounded by a protein coat called a ___________________ • Some viruses also have an ___________________________ that is derived from a host cell’s nuclear membrane or cell membrane. • Classification of Viruses • Viruses can be _________________________ based on whether they have RNA or DNA, whether the RNA or DNA is single or double stranded and circular or linear, by capsid shape, and whether or not they have an envelope. Vectors of Viral Diseases • Vectors, or _________________________, of viral diseases include humans, animals, and insects. Human Viral Diseases • Viruses cause many human diseases, including the _____________________________________, hepatitis, rabies, chickenpox, certain types of ______________________________________________. • Chickenpox and Shingles • Chickenpox and shingles are caused by the same ___________________________________________ • Hepatitis, or ________________________________________, can be caused by at least five viruses. • Hepatitis A and hepatitis E can be spread by ________________________________ food and water. • Hepatitis B, C, and D are spread by _____________________ contact, by contact with infected ________________________________, and by the use of contaminated _______________________. • Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS) • The human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) is an ______________________ spread by • ________________________ contact • contact with infected _______________________ • from ________________________________________ • HIV targets _______________________________ and thus damages the body’s immune system. The disease called ____________________________________________________________ (AIDS) results. • Viruses and Cancer • Some viruses contain ________________________________ that can cause cancer, while other viruses ________________ proto-oncogenes, which usually control cell growth, to oncogenes. • The ______________________________________ (HPV) causes genital warts and 93% of all cervical cancers Emerging Viral Diseases • Emerging viruses usually infect animals __________________________________________ but can jump to humans when contact occurs in the environment. – “Jump” means that the virus has _________________________________________________________ • The mutation usually occurs _______________________________________ the virus has an opportunity to infect humans • The ______________________________ has been very important in the evolutionary history of viruses • 8|Page