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‫ حسام العزاوي‬.‫د‬
respiratory system
The main function of the respiratory system is to provide oxygen to body
cells for energy metabolism and to eliminate carbon dioxide, a
byproduct of metabolism. Because these gases must be carried to and
from the cells in the blood, the respiratory system works closely with the
cardiovascular system to accomplish gas exchange .
This activity has two phases:
■ External gas exchange occurs between the outside atmosphere and the
blood.
■ Internal gas exchange occurs between the blood and the tissues.
External exchange takes place in the lungs, located in the thoracic cavity.
The remainder of the respiratory tract consists of a series of passageways
that conduct air to and from the lungs. No gas exchange occurs in these
regions
Terminology Key Terms
Normal Structure and Function
adenoids‫الغدانیات‬
AD-e-noyds
Lymphoid tissue located in the nasopharynx; the pharyngeal tonsils
alveoli
al-VĒ-ō-lī
The tiny air sacs in the lungs through which gases are exchanged between
the atmosphere and the blood in respiration (singular: alveolus). An
alveolus, in general, is a small hollow or cavity; the term also applies to
the bony socket for a tooth
bronchiole‫شعیبة‬
BRONG-kē-ōl
One of the smaller subdivisions of the bronchial tubes (root: bronchiol)
bronchus‫قصبة‬
BRONG-kus
One of the larger air passageways in the lungs. The bronchi begin as two
branches of the trachea and then subdivide within the lungs (plural:
bronchi) (root: bronch)
carbon dioxide (CO2)
A gas produced by energy metabolism in cells and eliminated through the
lungs
carbonic acid
kar-BON-ik
An acid formed when carbon dioxide dissolves in water; H2CO3
diaphragm‫الحاجز الحجاب‬
DĪ-a-fram
The dome-shaped muscle under the lungs that flattens during inspiration
(root: phren/o)
epiglottis‫المزمار لسان‬
ep-i-GLOT-is
A leaf-shaped cartilage that covers the larynx during swallowing to
prevent food from entering the trachea
expiration
ek-spi-RĀ-shun
The act of breathing out or expelling air from the lungs; exhalation
glottis‫المزمار‬
GLOT-is
The opening between the vocal cords
hemoglobin
HĒ-mō-glō-bin
The iron-containing pigment in red blood cells that transports oxygen
inspiration
in-spi-RĀ-shun
The act of drawing air into the lungs; inhalation
larynx‫الحنجرة‬
LAR-inks
The enlarged, superior portion of the trachea that contains the vocal cords
(root: laryng/o)
lung
A cone-shaped, spongy respiratory organ contained within the thorax
(roots: pneum, pulm)
mediastinum‫األمامي المنصف‬
mē-dē-as-TĪ-num
The space between the lungs together with the organs contained in this
space
pharynx
FAR-inks
The throat; a common passageway for food entering the esophagus and
air entering the larynx (root: pharyng/o)
‫عصب حجابي‬phrenic nerve
FREN-ik
The nerve that activates the diaphragm (root: phrenic/o)
‫غشاء الجنب‬pleura
PLŪR-a
A double-layered membrane that lines the thoracic cavity (parietal pleura)
and covers the lungs (visceral pleura) (root: pleur/o)
‫حیز جنبي‬pleural space
The thin, fluid-filled space between the two layers of the pleura; pleural
cavity
sinus‫جیب‬
SĪ-nus
A cavity or channel; the paranasal sinuses are located near the nose and
drain into the nasal cavity
sputum‫بلغم‬
SPŪ-tum
The substance released by coughing or clearing the throat; expectoration.
It may contain a variety of material from the respiratory tract
‫فاعل بالسطح‬surfactant
sur-FAK-tant
A substance that decreases surface tension within the alveoli and eases
lung expansion
trachea
TRĀ-kē-a
The air passageway that extends from the larynx to the bronchi (root:
trache/o)
‫عظام المحارة( عظام قرین‬turbinate bones
TUR-bi-nāt
The bony projections in the nasal cavity that contain receptors for the
sense of smell. Also called conchae (KON-kē); singular: concha (KONka)
‫حبال صوتیة‬vocal cords
VŌ-kal
Membranous folds on either side of the larynx that are important in
speech production. Also called vocal folds.
Clinical Aspects of the
Respiratory System
acidosis
as-i-DŌ-sis
Abnormal acidity of body fluids. Respiratory acidosis is caused by
abnormally high carbon dioxide levels
‫ متالزمة الضائقة التنفسیة لدي‬acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS)
‫البالغین‬
Pulmonary edema that can lead rapidly to fatal respiratory failure; causes
include trauma, aspiration into the lungs, viral pneumonia, and drug
reactions; shock lung
acute rhinitis
rī-NĪ-tis
Inflammation of the nasal mucosa with sneezing, tearing, and profuse
secretion of watery mucus, as seen in the common cold
alkalosis
al-ka-LŌ-sis
Abnormal alkalinity of body fluids. Respiratory alkalosis is caused by
abnormally low carbon dioxide levels
aspiration
as-pi-RĀ-shun
The accidental inhalation of food or other foreign material into the lungs.
Also means the withdrawal of fluid from a cavity by suction
asthma‫ربو‬
AZ-ma
A disease characterized by dyspnea and wheezing caused by spasm of the
bronchial tubes or swelling of their mucous membranes
atelectasis‫انخماص‬
at-e-LEK-ta-sis
Incomplete expansion of a lung or part of a lung; lung collapse. May be
present at birth (as in respiratory distress syndrome) or be caused by
bronchial obstruction or compression of lung tissue (prefix atel/o means
“imperfect”)
‫توسع القصبات‬bronchiectasis
brong-kē-EK-ta-sis
Chronic dilatation of a bronchus or bronchi
bronchitis
brong-KĪ-tis
Inflammation of a bronchus
‫ الداء الرئوي الساد المزمن‬chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD)
Any of a group of chronic, progressive, and debilitating respiratory
diseases, which includes emphysema, asthma, bronchitis, and
bronchiectasis
cyanosis
sī-a-NŌ-sis
Bluish discoloration of the skin caused by lack of oxygen in the blood
(adjective: cyanotic)
‫ضیق التنفس‬dyspnea
disp-NĒ-a
Difficult or labored breathing, sometimes with pain; “air hunger”
emphysema
em-fi-SĒ-ma
A chronic pulmonary disease characterized by enlargement and
destruction of the alveoli
empyema‫انتفاخ‬
em-pī-Ē-ma
Accumulation of pus in a body cavity, especially the pleural space;
pyothorax
‫نفث الدم‬hemoptysis
hē-MOP-ti-sis
The spitting of blood from the mouth or respiratory tract (ptysis means
“spitting”)
‫صدر مدمى‬hemothorax
hē-mō-THOR-aks
Presence of blood in the pleural space
‫موه الصدر‬Hydrothorax
hī-drō-THOR-aks
Presence of fluid in the pleural space
hyperventilation
hī-per-ven-ti-LĀ-shun
Increased rate and depth of breathing; increase in the amount of air
entering the alveoli
‫ الشاھوق‬، ‫السعال الدیكي‬pertussis
per-TUS-is
An acute, infectious disease characterized by a cough ending in a
whooping inspiration; whooping cough
‫إراقة جنبیة‬،‫انصباب جنبي‬pleural effusion
PLŪR-al e-FŪ-zhun
Accumulation of fluid in the pleural space. The fluid may contain blood
(hemothorax) or pus (pyothorax or empyema)
pleurisy
PLŪR-i-sē
Inflammation of the pleura; pleuritis. A symptom of pleurisy is sharp pain
on breathing
‫تغبر الرئة‬pneumoconiosis
nū-mō-kō-nē-Ō-sis
Disease of the respiratory tract caused by inhalation of dust particles.
Named more specifically by the type of dust inhaled, such as silicosis,
anthracosis, asbestosis
‫ذات الرئة‬pneumonia
nū-MŌ-nē-a
Inflammation of the lungs generally caused by infection. May involve the
bronchioles and alveoli (bronchopneumonia) or one or more lobes of the
lung (lobar pneumonia)
‫التھاب رئوي‬pneumonitis
nū-mō-NĪ-tis
Inflammation of the lungs; may be caused by infection, asthma, allergy,
or inhalation of irritants
‫استرواح الصدر‬pneumothorax
nū-mō-THOR-aks
Accumulation of air or gas in the pleural space. May result from injury or
disease or may be produced artificially to collapse a lung
‫ متالزمة الضائقة التنفسیة‬respiratory distress syndrome (RDS)
A respiratory disorder that affects premature infants born without enough
surfactant in the lungs. It is treated with respiratory support and surfactant
administration
‫ متالزمة موت الرضیع المفاجئ‬sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS)
The sudden and unexplained death of an apparently healthy infant; crib
death
tuberculosis،‫درن سُل‬
tū-ber-kū-LŌ-sis
An infectious disease caused by the tubercle bacillus, Mycobacterium
tuberculosis. Often involves the lungs but may involve other parts of the
body as well.
Diagnosis
arterial blood gases(ABGs)
The concentrations of gases, specifically oxygen and carbon dioxide, in
arterial blood. Reported as the partial pressure (P) of the gas in arterial (a)
blood, such as PaO2 or PaCO2. These measurements are important in
measuring acid–base balance
bronchoscope
BRONG-kō-skōp
An endoscope used to examine the tracheobronchial passageways. Also
allows access for tissue biopsy or removal of a foreign object
pulse oximetry
ok-SIM-e-trē
Determination of the oxygen saturation of arterial blood by means of a
photoelectric apparatus (oximeter), usually placed on the finger or the
ear; reported as SpO2 in percent
pulmonary function tests
Tests done to assess breathing, usually by spirometry
spirometer
spī-ROM-e-ter
An apparatus used to measure breathing volumes and capacities; record
of test is a spirogram
thoracentesis
thor-a-sen-TĒ-sis
Surgical puncture of the chest for removal of air or fluids, such as may
accumulate after surgery or as a result of injury, infection, or
cardiovascular problems. Also called thoracocentesis .
tuberculin test
tū-BER-kū-lin
A skin test for tuberculosis. Tuberculin (PPD), the test material made
from products of the tuberculosis organism, is injected below the skin. A
hard, raised lump appearing within 48 to 72 hours indicates an active or
inactive TB infection.
Terminology Supplementary Terms
Normal Structure and Function
hilum
HĪ-lum
An anatomic depression in an organ where vessels and nerves enter
nares
NĀ-rēz
The external openings of the nose; the nostrils (singular: naris)
nasal septum
The partition that divides the nasal cavity into two parts (root sept/o
means “septum”)
Symptoms and Conditions
anoxia
an-OK-sē-a
Lack or absence of oxygen in the tissues; often used incorrectly to mean
hypoxia
asphyxia
as-FIK-sē-a
Condition caused by inadequate intake of oxygen; suffocation (literally
“lack of pulse”)
bronchospasm
BRONG-kō-spazm
Narrowing of the bronchi caused by smooth muscle spasms; common in
cases of asthma and bronchitis
Cheyne-Stokes respiration
chān stōks
A repeating cycle of gradually increased and then decreased respiration
followed by a period of apnea; caused by depression of the breathing
centers in the brainstem; seen in cases of coma and in terminally ill
patients
cor pulmonale
kor pul-mō-NĀ-lē
Enlargement of the heart’s right ventricle caused by disease of the lungs
or pulmonary blood vessels
coryza
kō-RĪ-za
Acute inflammation of the nasal passages with profuse nasal discharge;
acute rhinitis
croup
krūp
A childhood disease usually caused by a viral infection that involves
upper airway inflammation and obstruction. Croup is characterized by a
barking cough, difficulty breathing, and laryngeal spasm
epiglottitis
ep-i-glo-TĪ-tis
Inflammation of the epiglottis that may lead to upper airway obstruction.
Commonly seen in croup (also spelled epiglottiditis)
epistaxis
ep-i-STAK-sis
Hemorrhage from the nose; nosebleed (Greek -staxis means “dripping”)
fremitus
FREM-i-tus
A vibration, especially as felt through the chest wall on palpation
Kussmaul respiration
KOOS-mawl
Rapid and deep gasping respiration without pause; characteristic of
severe acidosis
pleural friction rub A sound heard on auscultation that is produced by
the rubbing together of the two pleural layers; a common sign of pleurisy
rales
rahlz
Abnormal chest sounds heard when air enters small airways or alveoli
containing fluid; usually heard during inspiration; singular: rale (rahl).
Also called crackles
rhonchi
RONG-kī
Abnormal chest sounds produced in airways with accumulated fluids;
more noticeable during expiration (singular: rhonchus)
stridor
STRĪ-dor
A harsh, high-pitched sound caused by obstruction of an upper air
passageway
wheeze
A whistling or sighing sound caused by narrowing of a respiratory
passageway
Disorders
sleep apnea
AP-nē-a
Intermittent periods of breathing cessation during sleep. Central sleep
apnea arises from failure of the brainstem to stimulate breathing.
Obstructive sleep apnea results from airway obstruction during deep
sleep, as from obesity or enlarged tonsils
Diagnosis
mediastinoscopy
mē-dē-as-ti-NOS-kō-pē
Examination of the mediastinum by means of an endoscope inserted
through an incision above the sternum
plethysmograph
ple-THIZ-mō-graf
An instrument that measures changes in gas volume and pressure during
respiration
thoracoscopy
thor-a-KOS-kō-pē
Examination of the pleural cavity through an endoscope; pleuroscopy
Treatment
aerosol therapy Treatment by inhalation of a drug or water in spray form
continuous positive airway pressure (CPAP)
Use of a mechanical respirator to maintain pressure throughout the
respiratory cycle in a patient who is breathing spontaneously
extubation Removal of a previously inserted tube
intermittent positive pressure breathing (IPPB)
Use of a ventilator to inflate the lungs at intervals under positive pressure
during inhalation
intermittent positive pressure ventilation (IPPV)
Use of a mechanical ventilator to force air into the lungs while allowing
for passive exhalation
nasal cannula
KAN-ū-la
A two-pronged plastic device inserted into the nostrils for delivery of
oxygen
orthopneic position
or-thop-NĒ-ik
An upright or semiupright position that aids breathing
positive end-expiratory pressure (PEEP)
Use of a mechanical ventilator to increase the volume of gas in the lungs
at the end of exhalation, thus improving gas exchange
postural drainage
POS-tū-ral
Use of body position to drain secretions from the lungs by gravity. The
patient is placed so that secretions will move passively into the larger
airways for elimination
Surgery
adenoidectomy
ad-e-noyd-EK-tō-mē
Surgical removal of the adenoids
intubation
in-tū-BĀ-shun
Insertion of a tube into a hollow organ, such as into the larynx or trachea
for entrance of air. Patients may be intubated during surgery for
administration of anesthesia or to maintain an airway. Endotracheal
intubation may be used as an emergency measure when airways are
blocked
lobectomy
lō-BEK-tō-mē
Surgical removal of a lobe of the lung or of another organ
tracheotomy
trā-kē-OT-ō-mē
Incision of the trachea through the neck, usually to establish an airway in
cases of tracheal obstruction
tracheostomy
trā-kē-OS-tō-mē
Surgical creation of an opening into the trachea to form an airway or to
prepare for the insertion of a tube for ventilation ; also the opening thus
created
Terminology Abbreviations
ABG(s) Arterial blood gas(es)
AFB Acid-fast bacillus (usually Mycobacterium tuberculosis)
ARDS Acute respiratory distress syndrome; shock lung
ARF Acute respiratory failure
BCG Bacillus Calmette-Guérin (tuberculosis vaccine)
BS Breath sounds
CF Cystic fibrosis
CO2 Carbon dioxide
COPD Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease
CPAP Continuous positive airway pressure
CXR Chest radiograph, chest x-ray
DTaP Diphtheria, tetanus, pertussis (vaccine)
FEV Forced expiratory volume
FRC Functional residual capacity
FVC Forced vital capacity
IC Inspiratory capacity
O2 Oxygen
PaCO2 Arterial partial pressure of carbon dioxide
PaO2 Arterial partial pressure of oxygen
PEEP Positive end-expiratory pressure
PFT Pulmonary function test(s)
RDS Respiratory distress syndrome
RSV Respiratory syncytial virus
RV Residual volume
SIDS Sudden infant death syndrome
SpO2 Oxygen percent saturation
TB Tuberculosis
TV Tidal volume
URI Upper respiratory infection
VC Vital capacity