Download Memorv MEMORY • Our cognitive system for storing and retrie\ing

Introduction to Pf)·chology 202
Dr. Rosalyn jl;f. King
SUi'l-flr!ARY NOTES
MEMORY
Memorv
• Our cognitive system for storing and retrie\ing information. Without this system we would always
have to relearn everything over each day.
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We now have metamemory- our awareness and knowledge of the functions and processes of our mvn
memory systems. Metamemory develops and improves \\ith age.
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Other definitions: memory is the capacity to retain and later retrieve information. Without a ·
mechanism for storing, retaining and later retrieving information, we would be perpetual beginners,
having to relearri virtually everything we do each day. Myers says that memory is the persistence of
learning over time via the storage and retrieval of information.
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Today psychologists know more about memory than about any other basic aspect of cognition.
Historv
• Herman Ebbinghaus (1850-1908), used himself as the subject, Ebbinghaus developed systematic
procedures for measuring memory.
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He was the first to plot a forgetting curve, a graph which shows the rate at which humans are able to
retain lists of nonsense syllables after various intervals of time;
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Mary Whiton Calkins (1863-1930), while at Harvard University developed the paired associates
technique to study memory, a method still used today. Was president of APA in 1905.
Tasks of Memorv
Encoding
• Encoding: Entering information into memory. Two types of encoding: automatic processing memories that form automatically and effortlessly. Difficult to shut off. Unconscious encoding of
incidental information, such as space, time frequency, word meanings, etc. effortful processing encoding that requires attention and conscious effort.
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We also encode infonnation through the semantic meaning of words, through acoustics or the
encoding of sound, and visually through images.
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When processing verbal information for storage, we usually encode its meaning. For example, we
associate it with what we already know or imagine.
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We also process or encode imagery. We remember words that lend themselves to picture images
better than we remember abstract, low-imagery words. Imagery is at the heart of many memory aids.
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Storage
Storage is the organization and retention of information over varying periods of time. ·
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Our storage of information includes using 3 routes: sensory, short-term and long-term storage.
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Mnemonic devices are used as aids to remember long passages and speeches. These devices help
organize material for later retrieval. The Method of Loci is another technique used - imagining
yourself moving through a familiar series of locations, associating each place 'l'iith a visual
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Summary Notes, Memory
representation of the to-be-remembered topic. Chunking aids our recall of unfamiliar material. It is
when we organize information into meaningful units. You can do this by creating acronyms such as
HOMES to remember the five great lakes (Huron, Ontario, Michigan. Erie and Superior).
Hierarchies are also used. When people deYelop expertise in an area.. they process information not
only in chunks but also in hierarchies composed of a few broad concepts di\ided and subdivided into
narrower concepts and facts.
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RetrieYal
Locating and assessing specific information when needed.
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One effective key to effective retrieval of information in longterm memory is organization.
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Forgetting is a sign that we have failed to encode infonnation properly. Thus, the information never
enters the memory system.
3 Distinct Memorv Svstems
Sensorv Memorv
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Sensory Memory - temporary storage from our senses. It is a stage of memory first encountered by a
stimulus. It holds impr~sions briefly,_ but long enough~ a series of perceptions seem to connect
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Sensory memory is very short-lived. The capacity of sensory memory is quite large - it may hold a
fleeting representation of virtually everything we see, hear, taste or smell
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Visual sensory memory seems to last for less than a second, while acoustic sensory memory lasts for
no more than a few seconds.
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Iconic memory is the mental representations of visual stimuli (icons). The sensory register that holds
icons. Iconic memory is accurate, photographic memory.
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Short-Term Memorv
Holds a limited amount of information for a short period of time. It holds small amounts of
information for 30 seconds or less.
Also called working memory. Viewed as very important - a kind of workbench for consciousness - a
system for temporarily holding information you are using or processing right now.
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In short-term memory most verbal input. both the words we read and the words others speak, seems to
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be stored acoustically, by how it sounds.
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There is some indication that information is also represented semantically, in terms of its meaning. So
it appears that we can store information in different ways.
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We group small bits of information into larger units known as chunks.
Example: IBFIMBWB ....
FBL IBM, BMW, TWA, CIA
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Page 3) Summary Notes, Memory
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Information does not remain in short-term memory very long unless it is actively rehearsed and
repeated over and over. It fades quickly may be almost totally gone "ithin 20 seconds.
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Sometimes called the workbench of consciousness - the place where information that is currently
being learned, reasoned about or comprehended is held.
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Phonological Loop. In working memory, a storage system for speech-related input Information is
held in the phonological loop for up to two seconds and is then lost unless it is maintained by subvocal
rehearsal for as long as the attentional controller makes it the center of conscious activity.
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Visuospatial Sketchpad. Stores visual information.
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The Central Executive. Directs attention toward one stimulus or another and determines which items
will be stored in working memory.
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Eidetic Imagerv. The maintenance of detailed visual memories over several minutes.
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Echoic Memorv. The mental representations of auditory stimuli are called echoes. The sensory
register that holds echoes.
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Longterm Memorv
Permits us to store vast quantities of information in a relatively permanent manner. Hard cognitive
work is needed to enter information into long-term memory.
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The capacity for storing long-term memories is essentially limitless. By one careful estimate, the
average adult has about a billion bits of information in memory. Its storage capacity is probably a
thousand to a million times greater.
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Tip--0f- the- Tongue Phenomenon. The feeling that we can almost, but not quite, remember some
information we wish to retrieve from memory.
Basic Operation
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Involves rehearsal - usually elaborative rehearsal - requires significant cognitive effort. This can
involve thinking about the meaning of the new information and attempting to relate it to information
already in memory.
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Alcohol interferes with long-term memory. It impairs it
Levels of Processing View
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Information can be processed in several different ways, ranging from relatively.si.iperficial shallow
processing through more effortful and lasting deep processing_
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The theory emphasizes that deeper, richer processing often leads to better learning; it also stresses that
active rehearsal both maintains new information over brief periods of time and aids its incorporation
into existing knowledge structures.
Parallel Distributed Processing Model
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This model suggests that information is actually processed simultaneously in several different parts of
our total memory system. These parts or units operate in parallel, all working on the same information
at once.
Page-') Summa ry Notes, Memory
3 Distinct Categories of the TYpest>f Information in Memo n'
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Semantic. The sum total of each person's general abstract knowledge about the world.
Episodic. Involves specific e,·e.'lts we have personally experienced. Also knmrn as autobiographical
memory.
Procedural. The result of the basic learning processes. We retain information about the perfonnance
of various tasks.
Implicit Memorv. Is involved in learning habits - such as riding a bicycle or driving a car. It does not
require "conscious" awareness. {E.!<imple: You can dri:••e home and be deep in thought.)
Explicit Memorv. Is conscious and sometimes called declarative. One form of declarative memory is
autobiographical memory- our ability to tell the story of our life in the conte::-.."t of time.
Retrieval
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Our ability to locate information stored in memory. One key to effective retrieval of information in
longterm memory is organization.
Retrieval Cues: Stimuli associated with information stored in memory that can aid in its retrieval.
Context-dependent memorv - the fact that material learned in one emirorunent is more difficult to
remember in a different conte.'tt than it is in the original one.
State-dependent retrieval - refers to the fact that it is often easier to remember information in
longterm memory when our internal state is similar to that at the time the information was first learned
than when these states are different.
Encoding Specificitv Principle - this depends on what information you enter into memory in the first
place. For example, if when learning some information, you encode certain aspects of your physical
surroundings, as part of the package, these will later serve as useful cues. If your internal state is part
of what is encoded, then this will later serve as an effective retrieval cue.
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Retrieval from semantic memorv:
Spreading ActiYating Theon - this theory proposes that semantic knowledge is not represented in
memory in a random or haphazard manner but in a richly interconnected network. The more similar in
meaning facts or concepts are. the stronger the connections are between them.
The theory further contends tbat when two concepts are stimulated, activation from each spreads
throughout the network until two concepts are linked. Activation from the first word can spread to
related words or concepts more quickly than to unrelated ones.
Forgetting
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Trace Decav Hvpothesis - Information entered into longterm memory fades or decays ~ith the
passage of time.
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Research indicates that forgetting is not merely a matter of the passage of time. For example, research
shows that subjects can forget material when they are active after the learning experience as opposed to
going to sleep.
Page 5) Summary Notes, Memory
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Memon· Tasks in Measuring Forgetting:
Retroactive Interference - \Vhen new learning interferes with the retrieval of old learning (something
you learned earlier).
Proactive Interference - When old (earlier) learning interferes ,..,ith the capacity fo r retrie\ ing
something you just learned.
PositiYe Transfer- When old infonnation prepares us for the new and thus makes the new
information easier to remember.
Retrospecth·e Forgetting - an inability to remember specific information entered into memory at an
earlier time.
ProspectiYe Memorv - remembering that we are supposed to perform some action at a certain time.
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Why do we forget?
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May be closely related to motivation. We tend to forget appointments or errands that are
relatively unimportant to us, or which we view as unpleasant. while remembering the ones we
judge to be important or pleasurable.
Prospective memory is subject to the impact of retrieval cues. We remember to perform activities
that we build into the structure of our days in such a way that we are reminded of them b various
cues.
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Memorv in Natur al Contexts
Autobiographical memorv: Remembering the events of our own lives.
Diarv Studies: Recalling the daily events of our lives.
Infantile Amnesia: Forgetting our earliest years.
Flashbulb Memories: VIVid memories of what we were doing at the time of an unusual or emotionprovoking evenl
Distortion Memorv: Alterations in what is remembered and reported.
Construction Memorv: The addition of infonnation that was not actually present
Schemas: Provides basic frameworks for processing new information and relad?g it to existing
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knowledge. Once schemas are formed they ex~1t strong effects.
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Repression - Information that is buried deep in the subconscious. A defense mechanism to protect
our self-concepts and minimize anxiety. When we are motivated to forget painful memories and
unacceptable ideas because they produce anxiety, guilt and shame. Both amnesia and repression may
also be due to a malfunction of the bippocampus.
-Ps,·cbogenic Amnesia - Stems from psychological conflict or trauma.
-Childhood Amnesia -Inability to recall events that occurred prior to the age of3.
Anterograde Amnesia - Memory lapses for a period following a traumatic event. blow to head,
electric shock or operation.
Page 6)
Summary Notes, Memory
-Retrograde Amnesia-Failure to remember events that occur prior to physical trauma because of
the effects of the trawna
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Korsakoff's SYndrome - Also known as Wernicke-Korsakoff's Syndrome. Brain damage caused
by prolonged thiamine deficiency. Severe thiamine deficiency occurs almost exclusively in severe
alcoholics who for days or weeks at a time eat almost nothing and drink alcoholic beverages.
S)mptorns: apathy, confusion, memory impairment hallucinations.
Some Notes on the Biologv of Memorv
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Rats reared in richly stimulating environments develop more dendrites and synapses in the
cerebral cortex than rats reared in relatively impoverished environments (Rosel1Z\verg, et al.,
1972).
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Adrenaline ( a honnone) geneially stimulates bodily arousal and activity. It also strengthens
memory when it is released into the bloodstream follov.ing instances of learning.
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The netirotran.smitter acetylcholine (Ach) is also ..,;taI in memory formation and an
insufficient supply contnlmtes to Alzheimer's disease.
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Another hormone that plays a role in memory is the antidiuretic hormone (ADH); also knmvn
as Vasopressin.
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The hippocampus appears to be vital to the storage of new information even if old information
can be retrieved without it (The hippocampus is involved in relaying incoming sensory
information to parts of the cortex) it is like a collating machine, sorting and then sending
various packets of information to other parts of the brain.. Persons with hippocampal damage
can form new procedural memories, even though they can not form new episodic memories.
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The hippocampus is one of the first parts damaged if oxygen is cut off. Without the
hippocampus, we learn and remember nothing.
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The thalamus, a structure near the center of the brain, appears to be involved in the formation
of verbal memories.
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Neurons are specialized for different types of memories - features, patterns, location,
direction. The coding is so specific that it can be mapped to different areas- in the prefrontal
region.
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Scientists now have direct evidence that the consolidation of memorieS, or LTP, takes plac.e
during sleep or during deeply relaxed states. It is then that brain waves slow to a rhythm
know as "theta,"' and it is speculated that the brain releases chemicals that enhance storage.
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In the laboratory researchers implanted electrodes in different cells in rats hippocampi and
watched each cell fire as the animals explored different parts of a box. After returning to their
cages the rats slept During sleep the very same cells fired. As a result, recent experiments
show that sleep improves memory in humans. (See page 73 of Annual Editions: Psychology,
1998/1999).
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Memory and Brain Processes
+ Memory is the persistence of learning over time through the storage and retrieval of
information
+ There are three kinds of memories:
1. Sensory Memory: the immediate, initial recording of sensory information in the
memory system
2. Short-term Memory: the activated memory that holds a few items briefly, such as
the seven digits of a phone number while dialing before the information is stored
or forgotten
+ Working Memory: a similar concept that focuses more on the processing
of briefly stored information
3. Long-term Memory: the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the
memory system
Synaptic Changes
+ Memories begin as impulses whizzing through brain circuits, somehow leaving
permanent neural traces
+ Synapses: the sites where nerve cells communicate with one another through their
neurotransmitter messengers
+ Neuroscientists point to synapses responsible as to where the neural changes occur
+ Increased synaptic efficiency makes for more efficient neural circuits
Impact of Stress
+ Prolonged stress acts like acid corroding neural connections and shrinking a brain
area (the hippocampus) that is vital for making memories
+ When sudden stress hormones are flowing, older memories may become blocked
..,. Structures otthe Brain That Play a Role in Memory
Medlodorsal
Rhinal cortex
(not vislbl9, on
medlal aurface of
temporal lobe)
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Implicit and Explicit Memories
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Implicit Memory: retention independent of conscious recollection
o Processed in the hippocampus and sent to other regions for storage
Explicit Memory: memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know
and declare
o Processed in the cerebellum and amygdala
I Types of Long-term Memory I
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Explicit
(dee larati ve)
With conscious recall
Factsgeneral knowledge
("Semantic memory")
Personally
experienced events
("Episodic memory")
Implicit
(nondeclarative)
Without conscious recall
Skillsmotor and cognitive
Classical and operant
conditioning effects
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MEMORY
CONCEPT MAP
Encodes several ways
Working Memory
7 + - 2 Items (5-9)
Maintain unrehearsed info for about 30 seconds
lntroductio11 to Ply clwlogy 202
Dr. Rosalyn M. King
Maintenance Rehearsal
Short-term Memory
Encodin
Elaborative Rehearsal
Levels of Processing
Procedural Memory
Memory Systems
Iconic vs. Echoic Memor
Can store virtuallv all info orovided bv senses
Sensory Memory
Can mainta in info if attend to it
Serriartic Networks/ Nodes connected by links
LTM stored as schemas
, Cognitive Schemas { Schema organizes information
Sensor
Short-term Memory
Stages
Long-term Memory
Bartlett
Computer Analogy
Information Processing
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Spreading Activation - Semantic Network Theor
Retrieval
Constructive Recall - Schema Theory
\ Distortion of memory to fit schema
Encoding
Storage
Tulving
Memories stored as nodes
Storage
Info fades ra pidly
Declarative Memory
Processes
Measuring
Retrieval
Serial-position
Ebbinghaus/ Method of Saving
Rel ea rning
Forgetting Curve
SQ3R
Overlearning
Forgetting
"Effective Study Habits
Trace Deca
Improvement
Distributed Practice
Expanations
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Method
Proactive
Retroactive
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[Motivation, Freud-repression
Mnemonic Devices
Interference
Encoding
Pegword Method
Tip-of-the-Tongue
Spec i ficity(~-'-----"'---
Context Dependent Memor
Link Method
State Dependent Memory
The Engram
Neu roanatomY,
Biopsychology of Memory
The Synapse
Squire
Hippocampus ,.------
Ac etylcholine
Neurochemistry( NMDA
Hormones