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MEMORY
Memory
■ Memory: persistence of learning over time
via the storage and retrieval of
information.
■ Gives us our sense of self and connects us
to past experiences.
■ Cognition: All the mental activities
associated with thinking, knowing, and
remembering information
Memory Process
■ Encoding: Transforming sensory information into meaningful
memory
■ Storage: Creating a biological trace of the encoded
information in memory, which can be consolidated or lost
■ Retrieval: Using stored information
ENCODING
Put into
Memory
STORAGE
Maintain in
Memory
RETRIEVAL
Recover from
Memory
Types of Sensory Memory
Sensory Memory: refers to the initial recording of sensory
information in the memory system. All information is held here
briefly (1/2 to 4 seconds)
Sensory Memories include both:
1. Iconic Memory: a momentary sensory memory of a visual
stimuli. Memory only lasts for a few tenths of a second.
2. Echoic Memory: a momentary sensory memory for auditory
stimuli. Sound memories can usually last up to 3 or 4
seconds.
Sensory memory is very hard to measure since it fades as we
try to measure it.
Prospective and Retrospective Memory
Prospective Memory:
remembering to do something
in the future
Ex. I need to remember to get my
husband an anniversary gift.
Retrospective Memory:
remembering you already did
something in the past
Ex. I already got my husband an
anniversary gift
Process of Encoding: 2 Types
Encoding
Effortful
Automatic
Automatic Processing (Type 1)
– unconscious encoding of incidental
information
■ space
■ time
■ frequency
– well-learned information
■ word meanings
– we can learn automatic processing
■ reading backwards
Effortful Processing (Type 2)
■ Effortful Processing: type of encoding that requires
attention and conscious effort.
■ Ex: Learning new vocabulary terms, memorizing
historical events/chronology, etc.
■ Encoding can be aided by maintenance rehearsal:
simple rote repetition of information in consciousness
or even more successfully by elaborate rehearsal:
processing of information for meaning which can more
easily help produce long term memories.
Memory Retrieval
■ Recall: a measure of memory in which the
person must retrieve information learned
earlier.
– Ex: fill in the blank, essay questions
■ Recognition: a measure of memory in
which the person need only identify items
previously learned.
– Ex: multiple choice, matching
■ Reconstruction of Memories: Retrieval of
memories that can be distorted by adding,
loosing, or changing details to fit a mental
representation
Damage to the Brain
■ Amnesia refers to the loss of
memory.
■ Amnesiac patients typically have
losses in explicit memory
– Anterograde Amnesia: type of
memory loss where patients are
UNABLE TO FORM ANY NEW
MEMORIES. Can’t remember
anything that has occurred AFTER
a traumatic head injury.
– Retrograde Amnesia: type of
memory loss where patients are
UNABLE TO REMEMBER PAST
EVENTS. May forget everything
that happened BEFORE a
traumatic head injury.
Explaining the Serial Position Effect
■ Primacy Effect: explains how we remember
concepts at the beginning of a list since
these are often the terms we have seen the
most when reviewing.
■ Recency Effect: explains how we remember
concepts at the end of the list a since these
are the terms we have seen most
RECENTLY.
■ MIDDLE IS FORGOTTEN MOST OFTEN.
Retrieval Cues: Reminders associated
with information we are trying to
retrieve ■ Priming: activation, often unconsciously, of
■
■
■
■
particular associations of memory.
Distributed practice: Spreading memorization
out over several sessions (BEST)
Massed practice (AKA Cramming): One session
Mnemonic devices: ROY G BIV
Chunking: organizing items into familiar,
manageable units, often occurs automatically
– The magic number is 7 + or – 2
– In other words, the most we can hold in our
STM is 5-9 items
Try to remember these numbers:
127194120011
86117761492
19141963
How confident are you
that you correctly memorized all 31
numbers?
Now, try to remember these numbers:
1492
1776
1861
1914
12-7-1941
1963
2001
Which was easier?
WHY?
Context Effects Memory Retrieval
■ Context-dependent memory: Being able to retrieve
information better when you are in the same context you
learned it in.
■ Emotional/Mood Impact of Memory:
–
–
State-Dependent Memory: information is most easily recalled
when in same “state” of consciousness it was learned in.
Mood Congruent Memory: tendency to recall experiences that
are consistent with one’s current mood.
Forgetting
■
1.
Forgetting is a result of either:
Encoding Failure
 Not paying attention to certain stimuli (selective
attention)
2. Storage Decay
 Gradual fading of the physical memory trace
 Neural connections are no longer there
3. Retrieval Failure from LTM
o
o
Relearning: A measure of retention of memory that
assessed the time saved compared to learning the first
time when learning information again
*if relearning takes as much time as the initial learning,
the information has decayed
Motivated Forgetting
■ Motivated Forgetting is the idea that people unknowingly
revise their history.
– Ex: I broke up with her; she didn't break up with me.
■ What purpose might motivated forgetting serve?
Motivated Forgetting:
A Freudian Concept
– Repression: idea put forth by
psychoanalytic theorists like
Freud which states anxiety
arousing thoughts, feelings,
and memories can be
banished from consciousness.
– Ex: child abuse, rape, incest
may be repressed and not be
able to be actively recalled.
Interference
■ Interference: Learning some items may disrupt
retrieval of other information
– Proactive(forward acting) Interference: disruptive
effect of prior learning on recall of new information
(old memories prevent the retrieval of newer
memories)
– Retroactive (backwards acting) Interference: disruptive
effect of new learning on recall of old information (new
memories prevent the retrieval of older memories)
■ Tip of the Tongue phenomenon: when we are
certain we know something yet we are unable to
recall it.
– Relates to retrieval failure, usually priming or
external cues will help you recall the information
you are looking for.