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Socialization II Learning • Acquisition • Contingency: cause and effect • Non-associative (habituation/sensitization) vs. Associative [conditioning, observation (social learning), play (learning w/o purpose)] • Rote vs. Informal (play, learning from life) vs. Formal (student-teacher) Classical (Pavlovian) Conditioning • Associative learning • Presentation significant stimulus (food) necessarily evokes an innate, reflexive, response: Unconditioned Stimulus (US) and Unconditioned Response (UR) • Pair neutral stimulus (doesn’t evoke behavioral response; e.g. ring bell) w/ significant stimulus (e.g. food) Conditioned Stimulus (CS) • Organism begins to produce a behavioral response to the CS Conditioned Response (CR) • In both cases (UR and CR) behavior is involuntary (salivating dogs) and largely uncontrollable – Syringe flinch, yawning, blink reflex Hypnopedia • Not technically classical conditioning, but linking US (e.g. khaki uniforms) to CR (“Alpha children wear grey. They work much harder than we do, because they’re so frightfully clever. I’m really awfully glad I’m a Beta, because I don’t work so hard.” “’And then so small.’ Fanny made a grimace; smallness was so horribly and typically low-caste.”) • Literary device to show propaganda techniques: Big Lie, repetition, conformity • “Debugging human intuition”: natural use of heuristics to create attitudes • Rational irrationality (free rider problem) manipulation by those who understand techniques Operant Conditioning • Changing voluntary behavior • Reinforcement is a consequence that causes a behavior to occur with greater frequency. • Punishment is a consequence that causes a behavior to occur with less frequency. • Extinction is the lack of any consequence following a behavior. When a behavior is inconsequential, producing neither favorable nor unfavorable consequences, it will occur with less frequency • Positive: adding; Negative: taking away Positive reinforcement occurs when a behavior (response) is followed by a favorable stimulus (commonly seen as pleasant) that increases the frequency of that behavior. In the Skinner box experiment, a stimulus such as food or sugar solution can be delivered when the rat engages in a target behavior, such as pressing a lever. Negative reinforcement occurs when a behavior (response) is followed by the removal of an aversive stimulus (commonly seen as unpleasant) thereby increasing that behavior's frequency. In the Skinner box experiment, negative reinforcement can be a loud noise continuously sounding inside the rat's cage until it engages in the target behavior, such as pressing a lever, upon which the loud noise is removed. • • – Babies and books ABC • Antecedent: stimulus set (late bell) • Behavior: keep talking to your friends • Consequence: tardy, Saturday school • Q: Does the behavior increase or decrease? If increases, reinforcement (even if hurts), if decreases, punishment (even if intended to be good) • E.g.: Do suspensions act as reinforcement or punishment? • Positive punishment (also called "Punishment by contingent stimulation") occurs when a behavior (response) is followed by an aversive stimulus, such as introducing a shock or loud noise, resulting in a decrease in that behavior. • Negative punishment (also called "Punishment by contingent withdrawal") occurs when a behavior (response) is followed by the removal of a favorable stimulus, such as taking away a child's toy following an undesired behavior, resulting in a decrease in that behavior. • Also: • Avoidance learning is a type of learning in which a certain behavior results in the cessation of an aversive stimulus. For example, performing the behavior of shielding one's eyes when in the sunlight (or going indoors) will help avoid the aversive stimulation of having light in one's eyes. • Extinction occurs when a behavior (response) that had previously been reinforced is no longer effective. In the Skinner box experiment, this is the rat pushing the lever and being rewarded with a food pellet several times, and then pushing the lever again and never receiving a food pellet again. Eventually the rat would cease pushing the lever. Identity • Erik Erikson: • Ego identity: sometimes identified simply as "the self" • Personal identity: the personal idiosyncrasies that separate one person from the next • Social identity or the cultural identity: collection of social roles that a person might play – You are your mask (slave hegemony) Historical Development of Self • Relatively recent phenomenon • Factors affecting – In the West, the Protestant stress on one's responsibility for one's own soul; – Psychology itself, emerging as a distinct field of knowledge and speculation; – The growth of a sense of privacy; – Specialization of worker roles during the industrial period (as opposed, for example, to the undifferentiated roles of peasants in the feudal system); – Occupation and employment's effect on identity (a unique professional vs. interchangeable factory worker) Social Identity • Categorization: We often put others (and ourselves) into categories. Labeling someone a Muslim, a Turk, or a soccer player are ways of saying other things about these people. – Often on the basis of faulty/limited information stereotypes • Identification: We also associate with certain groups (our in groups), which serves to bolster our self-esteem. – View in-group members as unique individuals • Comparison: We compare our groups with other groups (out groups), seeing a favorable bias toward the group to which we belong. – View others as all the same (actually true that all Asians/whites/blacks look alike to others) • Psychological Distinctiveness: We desire our identity to be both distinct from and positively compared with other groups • To what extent do I choose the groups I join because of who I am and how much are they chosen for me? – Gender, race, class, nationality • You can’t choose your parents, but can you really choose your friends? • If these groups then help shape your identity, how much of you is you? Criticism of the Self • Preoccupation with independence is harmful in that it creates racial, sexual and national divides and does not allow for observation of the self-in-other and otherin-self. • Self rejected wholly or in part by Communist China and Soviet Union • Narcissism/egotism of West one reason for rejection Western values