Survey
* Your assessment is very important for improving the workof artificial intelligence, which forms the content of this project
* Your assessment is very important for improving the workof artificial intelligence, which forms the content of this project
Plant physiology wikipedia , lookup
Plant evolutionary developmental biology wikipedia , lookup
Plant breeding wikipedia , lookup
Plant nutrition wikipedia , lookup
Glossary of plant morphology wikipedia , lookup
Tree planting wikipedia , lookup
Perovskia atriplicifolia wikipedia , lookup
COCONUTPRODUCTIONTECHNOLOGY TechnicalReport Developedintheproject:“CoconutIndustryDevelopmentfortheCaribbean” underITC/CARDIContractNo:2015-57-EF June2016 i Acknowledgements:ThisTechnicalReportisanoutputfromthecollaborationbetweenthe InternationalTradeCentre(ITC)andtheCaribbeanAgriculturalResearch&DevelopmentInstitute (CARDI)aspartoftheEUfundedproject‘CoconutIndustryDevelopmentfortheCaribbean’.Thereport hasbeenpreparedbyCARDIconsultants,EvansRamkhelawanandComptonPaul. PlatedesignsbyComptonPaul Photosanddiagramswithoutcreditmention:Authors ITC/CARDIContractNo:2015-57-EF Citation:Ramkhelawan,E.andC.Paul.2016.CoconutProductionTechnology.InternationalTradeCentre, Geneva,Switzerland. The designations employed and the presentation of material in this document do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the International Trade Centre concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city or area or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries. This document has not been formally edited by the International Trade Centre. ii Contents CHAPTER1–THECOCONUTPLANT 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 5 6 8 9 10 11 13 14 15 17 CHAPTER2–NURSERYESTABLISHMENTANDMANAGEMENT 2.0Introduction 20 1.0 Introduction 1.1Morphology 1.1.1Maturefronds 1.1.2Stem 1.1.3Rootsystem 1.1.4Inflorescence 1.2Pollination 1.3Thecoconutfruit 1.4Germination 1.5Varietiesofcoconut 1.5.1Tallvarieties 1.5.2Dwarfvarieties 1.5.3Hybridvarieties 1.6Varietalselection 1.7Selectionofmotherpalmsforseednutproduction 1.8Seednutharvest,selectionandstorage 2.1Stepsinestablishingandmanagingacoconutnursery 2.2Nurserysiteselection 2.3Seedbedpreparationinthepre-nursery 2.4Plantinginthepre-nurseryseedbed 2.5Selectionofseedlingsfromthepre-nurseryforplanting inthenurserybed 2.6Plantinggerminatedseednutsinthenurserybed 2.7Maintenanceofpre-nurseryseedbedsandnurserybeds 2.7.1Irrigation 2.7.2Weedmanagement 2.7.3Fertiliserapplication 2.7.4Mulching 2.7.5Pestanddiseasecontrolinthenursery 2.7.6Seedlingselectionfromthenurserybedfor transplantingtothefield 2.8Productionofseedlingsinpolyethylenebags(polybags) 2.8.1Maintenanceofpolybagnursery 2.8.2Transplantingfrompolybagstothefield 2.9Recordsandsignageinnurserybeds 20 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 26 26 26 26 26 26 29 31 32 32 iii CHAPTER3–CULTURALPRACTICESFORCOCONUT 3.0Introduction 33 3.1Ecologicalrequirements 3.2Sitelayout,landpreparationandplanting 3.3Plantingsystem 3.4Planting 3.5Fieldmaintenance 3.5.1Earlyseedlingcare 3.5.2Irrigationanddrainage 3.5.3Nutritionandfertilisation 3.5.4Nutritionaldeficienciesincoconutandcorrectivemeasures 3.5.5Weedmanagement 3.6Harvestingandhandling 3.7Varietalconservationprogramme CHAPTER4–INTEGRATEDPESTMANAGEMENT 4.1Introduction 4.2IPMstrategiestoavoidinsecticideresistance 4.3Surveillance 4.4KeypestissuesfacingCaribbeancoconutpalms 4.5IPMpracticesforcoconutatdifferentgrowthstages 4.5.1Nurserystage 4.5.2Pre-plantingstage 4.5.3Earlygrowthstage 4.6MajorArthropodpestsofcoconutintheCaribbeanregion 4.6.1Rhinocerosbeetle(Oryctesrhinoceros) 4.6.2Coconuteriophyidmite(AceriaguerreronisKeifer) 4.6.3Redpalmmite(RaoiellaindicaHirst) 4.6.4Redpalmweevil(RhynchophorusferrugineusOlivier) 4.6.5Leaf-eatingorblack-headedcaterpillar(Opisinaarenosella) 4.6.6Scaleinsect (AspidiotusdestructorSignoret) 4.6.7Coconutmealybug(NipaecoccusnipaeMaskell) 4.7CoconutdiseasesofRegionalsignificanceintheCaribbean 4.7.1Redringdisease 4.7.2Budrot 4.7.3Lethalyellowing 33 33 34 34 35 36 36 36 37 39 43 43 47 72 5.0Introduction 5.1Ecologicalconsiderationsforgrowthofcoconutandintercrops 5.2Factorstoconsiderwhenintercropping 5.3Plantingpatternanddensity 5.4Intercroppingarrangementpatterns 72 73 73 74 74 CHAPTER5–COCONUTINTERCROPPINGSYSTEMS 49 49 49 50 51 51 51 52 52 52 52 54 56 57 59 61 62 63 63 67 69 iv 5.5Examplesofintercropping 5.5.1Coconut+cocoa 5.5.2Coconut+corn 5.5.3Coconut+banana+plantain 5.5.4Coconutmultistorycropping(coconut+papaya +pineapple+peanut) 5.5.5Coconut+rootcrop 5.5.6Coconut+coffee 5.6Disadvantagesofintercropping 5.7Advantagesofintercropping 5.8Institutionalsupport 5.9Concludingremarks CHAPTER6–COCONUTANIMALPRODUCTIONSYSTEMS 76 76 77 78 79 80 81 81 82 82 83 84 6.0Introduction 84 6.1Theanimalcomponent 84 6.1.1Productionsystems 85 6.1.2Livestockmanagement 86 6.1.3Cattlenutrition 86 6.1.4Potentialproblems 86 6.2Theforagecomponent 87 6.2.1Mixedpastures 87 6.2.2Fertiliserrequirementsofpastureundercoconut 88 6.2.3Grazingcontrol 88 6.2.4Thepastureblockrotationsystem 89 6.3Future 89 6.4Researchneedsandfutureoutlook 89 6.5Socio-economicaspectsofproduction 90 6.6Systemconstraints 90 6.7Disadvantagesofcoconutanimalproductionsystems 91 6.8Potentialbenefitsofcoconutanimalproductionsystems 91 6.9Institutionalsupport 92 6.10Concludingremarks 92 APPENDIX1-Coconutproductiondatainthe25mostimportantcoconutproducing countriesoftheworld(2013). 93 APPENDIX2-CoconutproductionintheCaribbeancountries(2013). 94 APPENDIX3–Economicanalysisfortheproductionof1acre(0.4ha)ofcoconutfor waterinTrinidad&Tobago. 97 BIBLIOGRAPHY 99 v LISTOFPLATES 1.Thecoconutplant 2 2.Coconuttreemorethan30minheight 3 3.Coconutinflorescence 5 4.Harvestedpollen 6 5.Beepollinatingcoconutflower 6 6.Bunchesoftendernuts 7 7.Matureanddrynuts 7 8.Cross-sectionofthecoconutfruit 8 9.Developingembryoofcoconutduringgermination 9 10.Coconutcultivars 10 11.AtlanticTallvarietyofcoconut 11 12.VarietiesofMalayanDwarfvarietiesofcoconutpopularintheCaribbean 12 13.TendernutsofMalayanYellow,OrangeandGreenvarietiesofcoconuton displayatCentralFarm,Belize,February2016 13 14.Hybridvarietiesofcoconut 14 15.Highqualityselectedcoconutseednuts 15 16.Coconutplantsshowingpestanddiseasesymptoms 17 17.Coconutseednutharvest 18 18.Storageofselectedcoconutseednutsundertrees 19 19.Stepsinestablishingandmanagingacoconutnursery 21 20.Well-designednurseryfacility,CentralFarm,Belize 21 21.Nurseryseedbedpreparation 23 22.Seednutssowninpre-nurserybeds 24 23.Seedlingsinpre-nurseryreadyforselectionandmovetothemainnursery about4monthsaftersowing 25 24.Plantingdistancesforseedlingsinthemainnurserybed 25 25.Coconutseedlingsmulchedwithcoconutcoir,BartonIsles,Jamaica 27 26.Seedlingsbeingremovedfromnurserybedforplantinginthefield 28 27.Poorseedlingsthatshouldberejectedandgoodselectedseedlings 29 28.Paredseednutplacedinpolybag 30 29.Earlystepsofcoconutpolybagnursery 30 30.Layingoutofpolybags 31 31.Spacingandsystemsofplantingcoconutvarietiesunderfavourableagroecological conditions 35 32.Methodofplantingcoconutinthefieldandlatercropestablishment 36 33.Dripirrigationandfertiliserapplicationtococonut 37 34.Preparationofcirclearoundtrunkofcoconuttreetofacilitatefertiliser Application 35.Nutrientdeficienciesofmajorelementsincoconut 39 40 vi 36.Nutrientdeficienciesofminorelementsincoconut 42 37.Coconutjellyfrom8–montholdMalayanGreencultivar 44 38.Harvestingcoconutforwaterbygentlyloweringbunch togroundusingarope 44 39.Processingofdriedcoconutkernel(copra)andfromfreshkernelto produceoil 46 40.Climbersusingfootrope,poleandclimbingmachine 47 41.Coconutrhinocerosbeetle(Oryctesrhinoceros) 53 42.Coconuteriophyidmite(AceriaguerreronisKeifer) 55 43.Redpalmmite(RaoiellaindicaHirst) 56 44.Theredpalmweevil(RhynchophorusferrugineusOlivier) 58 45.Leaf-eatingorblack-headedcaterpillar(Opisinaarenosella) 60 46.Scaleinsect(AspidiotusdestructorSignoret)infestationon coconutfruit 61 47.Mealybugs(NipaecoccusnipaeMaskell)oncoconutleavesandfruit 62 48.SouthAmericancoconutpalmweevil(RhynchophoruspalmarumL.) 64 49.Thecoconutweevilanditsassociationwiththeredringnematode 66 50.Budrotincoconut 68 51.Lethalyellowingeffectsonfloweringandfruitingofcoconut 69 52.Adultcoconuttreeskilledbylethalyellowingdisease 70 53.LethalyellowingadvanceinJamaicasince1952 71 54.Coconut+cocoacroppingmodel(squareplantingandtriangularplanting system) 77 55.Coconut+papayaintercroppingsystem 78 56.Mixedcroppingmodel(Coconut+banana+plantainintercropping) inJamaica 78 57.YoungAtlanticTallcoconutvarietyintercroppedwithcitrus,papayaand ColumbiancedarinTrinidad. 80 58.CattlegrazingunderTallcoconuttrees--usefulforweedcontrol 85 59.Cattlegrazingundercoconuts 86 LISTOFFIGURES 1.Timelineofpre-nurseryandmainnurseryoperationspriortoplantingoutthe seedlingsintheopenfield. 28 2.Areaoflandbeneaththecanopyofcoconutplantations availableforintercropping 73 3.Intercroppingpineappleandbananawithcoconut. 75 4.Coconut+cornintercroppingmodel. 77 5.Mixedcroppingmodel 79 6.Coconut+rootcropintercroppingmodel 80 7.Coconut+coffeeintercroppingsystem 81 vii LISTOFTABLES 1.Rateoffertiliserapplicationof15-5-20NPKperpalmperyear 2.Cropscommonlyintercroppedwithcoconut 38 76 viii Chapter1-THECOCONUTPLANT 1.0Introduction Coconut (Cocos nucifera L.) is a monocotyledonous plant of the family Arecaceae and the monospecific genus Cocos. Recent theory indicates that it originated in Polynesia (Wikipedia, 2016).Almosteverypartofthecoconuttreecanbeusedineithermakingcommercialproducts ormeetingthefoodrequirementsofruralcommunities(Teulatet.al.,2000).Thispalmcanbe foundgrowingovermostoftheislandsandcoastsofthesubtropicsandtropics(Dowe,2010) under varying climatic and soil conditions. Coconut is grown under different soil types such as loamy, laterite, coastal sandy, alluvial, clayeyandreclaimedsoilsofthemarshylowlands.Theidealsoilconditionsforbettergrowth and performance of the palm are proper drainage, good water-holding capacity, presence of watertablewithin3mandabsenceofrockoranyhardsubstratumwithin2mofthesurface. While it grows well on fertile free-draining soils, it also does well on sandy, saline soils and prefersareaswithabundantsunlightandregularrainfall(Wikipedia,2015).Arainfallofabout 2000 mm per year, well distributed throughout, is ideal for proper growth and maximum production(Widayat,2014). Coconut plays a significant role in the economic, cultural and social life of over 80 tropical countries (Oyoo et al., 2015). Over the years, the coconut palm has been referred to as “the treeoftheHeavens”and“treeofahundreduses”(Rillo,1999)whichindicatesitsremarkable usefulnessandqualities.Itisamajorsourceofincomeforruralfamiliesandplaysanimportant role in wealth generation and improving the quality of life in many tropical countries. Sustainable yields can be increased by providing high quality planting materials along with improvedmanagementofthecoconutplantations. o In the Caribbean region, the coconut palm serves a multi-functional role. At the small scale farming level, coconut is an important contributor to food security. At the industrial level, value-added products of coconut are important sources of employment and income in rural communities.Thecoconutproducesavarietyofproductswhichareconsumedintheregion and internationally. These include fresh green and dry nuts, copra, coconut oil and coconut wateramongothers.Coconutoilisconsumedasfoodwhileasignificantamountgoesintothe oleo-chemical industry. It is also used in food preparation and in the soap-making process. Additionally, the shell is used for various fibres, charcoal and other products not yet fully commercialized(CaribbeanAgribusiness,2010;Singhetal.,2008). This technical report addresses the description of the coconut plant, nursery operations required to produce high quality planting material, good production practices, pests and diseases and their control and, coconut intercropping and animal-based systems. If these approachesareimplementedappropriately,itishopedthattheinformationwillassistfarmers to optimise their coconut production and quality of produce. Good agricultural practices can guide the efficient, safe, environmentally-sound production of food of acceptable quality 1 (Ramdwar,2012)inasustainablemanner.Theaimistoprovideoptionsandsoassistfarmersin theirchoiceofthemostappropriatemanagementlevelfortheirparticularcircumstances. 1.1Morphology Thecoconutplant(Plate1)hasanunbranched,erect,pillar-likestem(upto30mtall)witha thick,wideleafbase,acompactapicalcrownoffeathery,glossy,thick-cuticledpinnateleaves (4 – 6m long and 1.2 – 2 m broad with leaflets 60 – 90cm long) sheathed at their base and attachedfirmlytothestem(Wikipedia,2015). Plate1.Thecoconutplant(SketchesfromUSDA,2014and StackExchangeInc.,2016) 1.1.1Maturefronds The period from unfurling of the leaf to senescence and drying of the leaf can be about 27 months.Theyoungleafwhichprotrudesoutofthebudinthecentreofthecrownasapointed arrowtakesabout4–5monthstoemergeoutofthesheath.Thelengthofleavesisinfluenced byfactorssuchasvariety,soil,climateandageofpalms.Generally,itvariesfrom4.5–6.0m;in olderpalms,theleavesareshorter.Aquarterofthetotallengthoftheleafistheleafstalk.The numberofleaflets(pinnae)onaleafvariesfrom200to250,thoseatthebaseandapexofthe leavesbeingsmallerinlengthandbreadth(DeTaffin,1998;GhoseandGopalakrishnan,2013; Santosetal.,1996). 2 1.1.2Stem Thestemdevelopsfromthesingleterminalbudcalledthe“cabbage”whichisthepalm’sonly vegetativegrowingpoint(Santosetal.,1996).Underfavourableconditions,thefoundationof thetrunkofayoungpalmreachesfulldevelopmentwithin3-4years.Itismadeupofalarge numberofvascularbundlessurroundedbyfibroustissuewhichgivesthetrunkitsflexibilityand strength. Inthetalltypes,thebaseofthetrunkisupto0.8mindiameter,taperingquicklytoabout0.4 m(Child,1974).Onceformed,thetrunkdoesnotchangemuchindiameter.Ifvariationoccurs from base to crown, this is not caused by biological factors but by climatic conditions and culturalpractices.Stemgrowthisfasterattheearlystages,whichcanbeasmuchas1.5mper yearbecomingslowerinolderpalmsanddecreasingto10-15cmperyearatthe40thyearand over.Thepalmcangrowupto30minheight(Plate2)inveryoldtrees(DeTaffin,1998). Plate2.Coconuttreemorethan30minheight. The coconut stem had no cambium and does not heal when damaged (Santos et al., 1996). Height growth varies according to age, cultivar and ecotype and can be assessed by counting thenumberofleafscarspermetre.Atabout10yearsold,growthisaround15–30cmperyear forDwarfpalmsand70–100cmperyearforTallpalms(DeTaffin,1998). 1.1.3Rootsystem The root system is adventitious and numerous uniformly thick roots are produced from the baseofthestemthroughoutthelifeofthepalm(Santosetal.,1996).Therearenotaprootsor roothairsbutthepalmhasnumerousrootswhichbearlargequantitiesofrootlets.Themain roots are mainly found within the topsoil; roots of an adult-bearing palm growing in a sandy loamareconcentratedwithinaradiusof2mfromthebaseofthepalmandcangrowupto30 –120cmindepth.Themainbranchesmaygrowdeeperandextendlaterallytoasmuchas10 3 m,seekingoutmoisture.Thenumberofrootsvaryfrom4,000–7,000inmaturepalms(Menon andPandalai,1960). 1.1.4Inflorescence Generally,theageatwhichthepalmflowersvariesaccordingtothevarietyandmanagement practices. Those having faster rates of leaf production and are grown under good nutritional andwatermanagementtendtoflowerearlier(Batugaletal,2005).Floweringgenerallybegins at2.5yearsafterplantingoutforDwarfsand7yearsforTalltypes.Oncefloweringhasbegun, the tree continues to produce flowers and fruits throughout the life of the palm (Wikipedia, 2015). Theinflorescence(Plate3)isenclosedinadoublesheathorspathe,thewholestructureknown asa'spadix'whichisbornesinglyintheaxilofeachleaf.Thereisanintervalofabout3years between floral primordium initiation in the leaf axil and spadix opening and a further year betweenthisstageandfruitmaturityi.e.drynutproduction(DeTaffin,1998).Theopeningof thefully-grownspatheoccurs1yearlater.Whenthespatheisfullygrown(about1yearafter floraldifferentiation),itsplitslongitudinallyalongagrooveandthefloweringbranch(peduncle 1-1.5mlongwith40–60branchesorspikelets)emerges(Furtado,1923).Eachspikeletcarries threefemaleflowersatitsbaseandseveralhundredmaleflowersabove.Thefemaleflowers resemble small nuts each about 25 mm in diameter with one fertile ovule. The number of femaleflowersproduceddependsontheclimaticandnutritionalfactorsaffectingthetreeat thetimeofinitiationofthefloralprimordiaintheleafaxil. Thepalmismonoecious,i.e.itsinflorescencecarriesbothmaleandfemaleflowers(Frankeland Galun,1977).Themaleflowers,eachwithsixstamens,arethefirsttoopen,beginningatthe topofeachspikeletandproceedingtowardsthebase.Eachmaleflowershedsitspollenand abscisesinjust1daybuttheentiremalephaseofpollen-sheddinglastsabout20daysinmost palmsdependingonseasonandvariety.Albada(1921)estimatedthateachmaleflowercarries about272,358,504pollengrains. A normal inflorescence may have 10-50 female flowers; these remains receptive from 1 - 3 days.Dependingontheenvironmentalconditionsandvariety,thefemalephasemaybegina fewdaysorlaterafterthespathehasopenedandlasts3-5daysinTallpalmsandabout8-15 days in Dwarfs. With natural pollination, 50 - 70% usually abort and fall off, especially those whichemergeduringseveredryweather.Theremainingflowersdevelopintofruits,whichtake about12monthstomature(Santosetal.,1996). Thelengthofthemaleandfemalephasesisaffectedbyclimaticenvironmentandusuallydo not overlap in the tall types, such that self-pollination rarely occurs. In some Dwarfs, particularly the Malayan Dwarf, overlapping of the male and female phases and between spadices usually takes place, promoting self-pollination. Hence, these Dwarfs are reasonably homozygous. 4 Plate3.Coconutinflorescence(Photocredits:PhillippineCoconutAuthority, 2015;Dowe,J.L.,2010). 1.2Pollination Pollination is the transference of pollen to the stigma. Fertilization is the fusion of the male element from the pollen with the female element in the ovule. Pollen collected from inflorescences(Plate4)hasalifespanof6daysunderfieldconditions(Santosetal.,1996)and canbemanuallytransferredtothefemaleflowerwhileitisopenandreceptive,thatis,thereis asecretionofnectaratthestigma.Sincethestamensandpistilsareborneinseparateflowers, pollination in nature can only take place with pollen brought by wind, insects or other pollinators that are attracted to them because of their particular scent, colour and nectar. Generally,beesarethemainnaturalpollinators(Plate5). Sincethemaleandfemalephasesofpollensheddingandstigmareceptivitydonotoverlapin theTalltypes,femaleflowershavetobefertilizedbypollenfromotherinflorescencesleading tomuchvariationintheseedlingsraisedfromthenutsofthesametreeorevenfromthesame inflorescence. 5 Plate4.HarvestedpollenPlate5.Beepollinatingcoconutflower (Photocredit:Newton’sapple,2016) Whenpollinationdoesnotoccur,thefemaleflowerusuallydehisces.Asaconsequence,amale orbarrenfruitisproducedandisnarrowerandmisshapenwithanuthavinglittleornokernel and no embryo. This may also be due to sterile pollen grains and ovules. Weak and poorly nourished trees often produce ineffective pollen. Albada (1921) has shown that desiccation influencesareductioninpollenvitality.Jepson(1915)observedthatwherebeesarepresentin largenumbers,theyieldofnutsisremarkablyhigh. 1.3Thecoconutfruit Once pollination and fertilization occur, female flowers develop into fruits or fibrous drupes, also called nuts; maturity occurs in about 12 months or less than 1 year for some Dwarf cultivars.Maturefruitsareapproximately20-30cmlongandweigh1.2–2.0kg(Plates6and 7).Thefruithasthreelayers:theexocarp,mesocarp,andendocarp(Plate8).Theexocarpand mesocarpmakeupthe"husk"ofthecoconut.Thesmoothoutsideskinistheexocarpwhich can vary from green, red-brown or yellow before maturity, later turning grey to brown. The mesocarpisthehard,fibrousreddishbrownhuskfromwhichcoirisobtained.Enclosedbythe mesocarpisahardshellcalledtheendocarpsurroundingthekernelorendosperm. Betweentheshellandthekernelisathinbrownseedcoatortestawhichadherestothehard endospermorkernel(alsocalledmeatorjelly),about12mmthickinamaturenut.Thekernel ormeat(calledcoprawhendriedto60%moisture)constitutes40–70%oftheweightofthe huskednutandcontainsabout50%waterand30-40%oil.Thecopraitselfhasanoilcontent ofabout63-70%(EncyclopaediaBritannica,Inc.,2016).Withinthekernelcavityistheliquid endospermorwater. Towards the end of maturity, the volume of water in the cavity decreases mainly due to adsorptionbytheendospermtissue.Maturenutshaveasloshingsoundofwaterwhenshaken. 6 On the surface of the endocarp or shell are three pores or eyes (Plate 8), but only one is functional; this is the germination pore or “soft eye” (Santos et al., 1996; De Taffin, 1998). Theseporesarefoundattheendofthenutthatwasattachedtothetree. Forwaterproduction,anutisharvested9monthsafterfertilisationwhileforcopraproduction nutsareharvestedatabout12months;6,000full-growncoconutsproduceatonneofcopra (Wikipedia,2015). Plate6.BunchesoftendernutsPlate7.Matureanddrynuts The number of nuts per bunch, weight and quality of nuts produced depend on genetic, environmental,climaticaswellasnutritionalfactorsprevailingduringtheentiredevelopmental periodofthenut,frominitiationuntilmaturity. 7 Plate8.Cross-sectionofthecoconutfruit(Photosandsketchesby Armstrong,2003;Healthtytrac,2014) 1.4Germination The ripe fruits that fall do not germinate immediately and, if dried during storage, they lose viability.Coconutseednutsgerminateeasilyinwarm,humidconditionsandsproutandgrow naturally wherever they fall (Harries, 2016). There is a peg-like embryo, embedded in the kernel, beneath the germination pore. The coconut water (liquid endosperm) within the endospermisincontactwiththeyoungembryowhich,intendernutsharvested6–7months after pollination, are partially gelatinous and roughly spherical with diameters ranging from 0.20-1.55mm.Theembryoisusedtoproducewholeplantsusingtissueculturetechniques. About3-6monthsafternutmaturity,theembryobeginstoenlargeinternally,toeventuallyfill thecavitywithasponge-likehaustorium(alsocalled“bread”)(Sugimura,1998).Thisproduces theenzymesthatconverttheoilinthekernelintonutrientsthatarethenabsorbedtosupport earlyplantgrowth(Balasubramaniametal.,1973;Manjulaetal.,1993).Withinthehusk,the growing point of the embryo develops a plumule and young root (radicle) (Plates 8 and 9) which eventually emerge through the mesocarp and exocarp and expand in daylight for photosynthesistobegin.Thetimetakenforemergencedependsonthethicknessofthehusk. Theyoungleavesare“entire”leaves(withoutleaflets),butastheplantgrows,itwillproduce thefronded(“pinnate”)leavestypicalofthecoconutpalm(CTAHR,1996). 8 Plate9.Developingembryoofcoconutduringgermination. (SketchesbyLibraryofCongress,2010;Homesteadgardening,2013; Sites.google.com,2016;Elfrick,2016;Newton’sApple,2016) Thedateofgerminationiswhentheyoungshootemergesfromthehusk.Forslow-germinating varieties,itisthepracticetoremoveathinsliceofhuskbeforesettinginthenursery(Ugbah andAkpan,2003).Theadditionallabourcostoftrimmingmustalsobetakenintoconsideration aswellastheriskofentryofpathogens. 1.5Varietiesofcoconut Thereareonlytwodistinctvarietiesofcoconut,theTallandtheDwarf.TheDwarfvariety isshorterinstatureanditslifespanisshortascomparedtotheTall(TNAU,2012). Besidesthesetwovarieties,varioushybridsweredevelopedrandomly(Plate10)andthrough controlled crosses by crossing the Talls and the Dwarfs. They are known as the T x D (Tall x Dwarf)orDxT(DwarfxTall)accordingtothevarietychosenasthefemaleparentinthecross (DeTaffin,1998).IntrogressionofTallsandDwarfsandfurtherselectionanddisseminationby man,producedthewiderangeofvarietiesandpan-tropicaldistributionofcoconutseentoday (Harries,1978). 9 Plate10.Coconutcultivars(Photocredits:Berlin,1997; CoconutDevelopmentBoard,2013a) 1.5.1Tallvarieties Tallvarietiesareextensivelycultivatedinallcoconutgrowingareasoftheworldandtolerate diversesoilandclimaticconditions.Theyareextensivelycultivatedfortheircopra,oilandfibre. Thetrunkhasacharacteristicswollenbasecalleda“bole”(Plate11).Tallscangrowupto20– 30minheightandeachcrowncanhave35-40fronds,whichwhenfullyopen,caneachreach alengthofabout6m.Thecrownoftheplanthasacircularshape.Tallsareslowmaturingand flower 6 - 10 years after planting; they have an average economic life of 60 - 70 years and generallyliveto80–90years(TNAU,2012).Thenutismediumtobiginsizevaryinginshape from spheroid to linear-oblong and with colours varying from green, yellow and orange to shadesofbrown. Thenutmatures12monthsafterpollinationandthecopra,oilandfibreof thisvarietyareofverygoodquality(GhoseandGopalakrishnam,2013). Sincethelengthsofthemaleandfemalephasesofpollenshedandstigmareceptivityusually donotoverlapintheTalltypes,self-pollinationrarelyoccurs.Theyare,therefore,mainlycrosspollinated and considered to be heterozygous. This means that they share genetic material amongtreesandthisresultsingreatvariationinthecharacteristicsofthefruit. 10 Plate11.AtlanticTallvarietyofcoconut. IntheCaribbean,thepredominantTallvarietiesgrownarethePanamaTallandtheJamaicaor AtlanticTall(Singhetal.,2008)butthesearesusceptibletoLethalYellowingdisease.However, theTallvarietiescangrowvigorouslyinthesandysoilsofcoastlinesandaredroughttolerant. Theycanalsohandlehighwindsduetotheirmassivefibrousrootstructure.Amaturetreecan produce more than 120 nuts per year. The nut produces a lot of meat and about 6,000 nuts yieldatonofcopra(GhoseandGopalakrishnam,2013). 1.5.2Dwarfvarieties Dwarf varieties are classified based on the nut colour, viz. yellow nuts, green nuts, red or orange or golden or bronze nuts, and brown nuts (Plates 12 and 13). The Malayan Dwarf’s resistance to the Lethal Yellowing disease is the characteristic that makes it one of the most important dwarf types in the world (Wikipedia, 2015). This Dwarf variety is now grown in all Caribbeancountries.InSuriname,Guyana,StLuciaandBelizethereisabrowndwarfcultivar. It comes into bearing 2.5 – 3 years after planting and a six-year old tree under good managementyieldsbetween15–20nutsperbunch(Plate12). Dwarfsareusuallyplantedfortendernuts(waterproduction)andornamentalpurposes.They are short in stature (8 - 10 m at 20 years after planting). Dwarfs are believed to be mutants fromTalltypesandareearlybearers;theybeginbearingaboutthethirdyearsometimesatless thanonemeterstemheight,buthaveashortproductivelifeof30–40years(Batugaletal., 2005). 11 Since the period of receptivity of the female flower is fully overlapped by the period of dehiscenceandpollen-sheddingofthemaleflowersinthesameinflorescence,self-pollination takesplace,sotherearefewerdifferenttypes;thevarietyis,therefore,autogamous.Thetrunk isthinwithoutaswollenbole.InsteadofhavingaroundcrownliketheTallvarieties,ithasaVshapedprofile. TheMalayanDwarfcanproduce80-100nutsperyearperpalmataplantingdensityof205 palmsperhectareandwithoutirrigation(Santosetal.,1996).Thenutsareusuallysmallerand rounderandareusuallyred,greenoryellow.Theyhaveverylittlemeatbutthewaterisvery sweet.Thepeduncleisshortbutthebunchiswellsupportedbytheleafpetiole.Dwarftrees usuallyproducemoreandsmallerfruitsthanTallvarieties.Theyareheavyyieldersbutcanalso beirregularbearers.Adehuskednutweighsabout85gwith60%oilcontent. Dwarf trees are more sensitive to drought, salt and wind damage than Tall types and thrive better inland on fertile, well-drained soils. Yellow and Green dwarfs are used as the female parent in breeding programmes in developing high yielding hybrids (Ghose and Gopalakrishnam,2013). Plate12.VarietiesofMalayanDwarfvarietiesofcoconutpopularintheCaribbean (Photocredits:Pinterest.com,2016;VendioServices,2016). 12 Plate13.TendernutsofMalayanYellow,OrangeandGreenvarietiesofcoconuton displayatCentralFarm,Belize,February2016. 1.5.3Hybridvarieties Theseareintervarietalcrossesoftwomorphologicalformsofcoconut.Naturalcrossesbetween Talls and Dwarfs occur sporadically in traditional populations. In Jamaica, the breeding programme of the Coconut Industry Board produced F1 hybrids using combinations of the Malayan Dwarf and selected tall cultivars from the Jamaica Tall and Panama Tall (Plate 14). Field evaluation trials were then conducted and the Maypan (Malayan Dwarf × Panama Tall) wasselectedandreleasedforcommercialplantingin1974.IshardierthantheYellowMalayan Dwarfandhassincesupersededtheparentdwarfasthemostwidelyplantedcoconutcultivar inJamaica(Wallace,1994).However,ithassincelostsomeofitsresistancetoLethalYellowing disease.Itproducesnutswithin3yearsandallowsforeasyharvestingandgrowsabout18min height.Ithasasmallboleandatrunksizein-betweenthetallandthedwarf.Itissomewhat sensitivetodroughtandsaltexposureandprefersafertile,well-drainedsoil.Thenutscanbe greenorbrownandthepetiolesofthefrondslimegreenorbrown.ThecrownhasaV-shape liketheMalayandwarf.HybridsofTalltypessuchasPanamaTallandJamaicaTallxMalayan dwarfhaverecentlybecomepopular(GuyanaMarketingCorporation,2014;Pilgrim,2011). TheexistingvariabletraitsbetweenTallandDwarfpopulations,andwithintheTalls,providea goodopportunitytoproducevariousrecombinantsthatcouldyieldthedesiredcharacteristics. Theseedlingsfromhybridnutsexhibitrapidgrowthandahigherrateofleafproduction.They have a high bearing capacity, show earliness in flowering and give increased yield, higher quantity and better quality of copra and oil when compared to the parents. They possess characteristicsthatareintermediatetothoseofDwarfsandTalls. ThoughTxDandDxTareheavyyielders,researchdataandfieldexperienceindicatethatthe DxTisbetterforregularityinbearing(GhoseandGopalakrishnam,2013).Thehybridseedlings on planting exhibit rapid growth rate with a higher rate of leaf production. They are early to flowerandgiveincreasedyield,higherquantityandqualityofcopraandoil(65–69%)when comparedtotheirparents.Theystartbearing4yearsafterplanting,havehighannualyieldof about95-116nutspertreeperyearandproducegoodqualitycopra.Hybridsperformwell 13 under good management practices and respond well to fertilizer application and irrigation (Ghose and Gopalakrishnam, 2013). Nuts from hybrid trees should not be used for seedling productionbecauseoftheinherentgeneticvariabilityofF1generations. Plate14.Hybridvarietiesofcoconut(Photocredits:TNAU,2012;Widayat,2014) 1.6Varietalselection Thevarietychosenbythegrowershouldhaveexcellentyieldandqualityattributesrequiredby the consumer. Agronomic considerations include tree height, precocity, bunch size, nuts per bunch,kernelweightandoilcontent,watervolume,0brix,tolerancetodrought,adaptabilityto soilconditions,andtolerance/resistancetopestanddiseases. Whentakingintoconsiderationthemanyusesofthecoconut,thefollowingcharacteristicsand propertiesareimportantinthevarieties(Ranasinghe,1998): Kerneluses(copra,desiccatedcoconut, -highcrudefibrecontent. cream) -firmness/rigidityofkernel. -plasticbehaviourofpressedcake. Sapproduction -dwarfvarietieswithhighyieldofsugar. Fibreproduction -largehusks,withhighpercentageoffibre whicharelargeindiameter,stiffandlong. Charcoalproduction -highshellmassandthickness. Mechanizationofpreparation -uniformandregularsizeofspheroidalor ellipsoidalshape. Resistancetoaflatoxinaccumulation -varietiesresistanttoAspergillusmould. 14 1.7Selectionofmotherpalmsforseednutproduction Success of a viable coconut plantation starts with the utilization of high quality planting materials. Consequently, extreme care should be taken in choosing seedlings to start a plantation.Thisisespeciallysosincepoorplantingmaterialwillproducelowyieldsandresultin a failed enterprise. For production of quality planting materials it is essential to select good qualitymotherpalmsofthedesiredvarieties(TNAU,2012). Screened germplasm can provide a good head start to sustain the coconut palms’ productive andeconomiclifespanof60yearsforTallvarietiesand35–40yearsforDwarfs.Inorderto obtainqualityseednuts(Plate15)tofulfiltheseedlingrequirements,motherpalmshavetobe selectedwithoptimumgeneticpotential. Plate15.Highqualityselectedcoconutseednuts(Photocredits:TNAU, 2014;123RFLtd,2016;Dave’sGarden,2016). Theimportantfeaturesofsuperiormotherpalmsare(DeTaffin,1998;TNAU,2012;Ghoseand Gopalakrishnam,2013;KissanKerala,2016): • • Palmsshouldberegularbearerswithanannualyieldofmorethan100nutspertreeper year.Agoodregularbearingmotherpalmproducesonanaverageoneleafandan inflorescenceinitsaxileverymonthi.e.12bunchesperyearatvaryingstagesof maturity. Yieldsshouldbenotlessthan100nuts/palm/annumunderirrigatedconditions(70-80 nuts/annumunderrain-fedconditions). Varietiesforcopraproductionshouldhave mediumsizednuts(about1,200gdryweight/nut)witharoundoroblongshape. 15 • • • • • • • • Thehuskednutshouldbelarge(morethan600g)withthickkernels;havingacopra contentofatleast150gpernutandanoilcontentof65–70%. Varietiesforcoconutwaterproductionshouldhaveatleast10-15nutsperbunchwith morethan400mlwaterpernut. Palmsshouldhaveastout,sturdy,straightandrobuststemwithclosely-spacedleaf scars. Thepetiolesshouldhaveawideleafbasefirmlyattachedtothestem. Eachleafaxilshouldhaveoneinflorescencewithalargenumberofspikesandatleast one or two flowers per spike. The inflorescence stalk should be short and stout with bunches preferably resting on the leaf petioles of the lower whorl; the spadix should have25ormorefemaleflowers. There should be a high rate of leaf (more than 30 fully opened leaves) and spathe production(12inflorescencesperyear). Theageofthepalmchosenshouldpreferablybefrom15-40yearsforTallvarietiesand 12-30yearsforDwarfvarieties. Treesshouldbevigorouslygrowingandbefreefrompestsanddiseases(Plate16). Thesuperiormotherpalmswhichareselectedshouldbemarkedandmapped. Palmswhichhavethefollowingcharacteristicsshouldbeavoided(TNAU,2012): • Palmsshowingunusualmorphologicalfeaturessuchasbent,twistedstems. • Palms with long, thin and pendulous inflorescence stalks and those with alternate bearingtendency. • Palmsproducinglong,narrow,small-sizedorbarrennuts. • Palmssheddingimmaturenutsinlargenumbers. • Palmsthataregrownunderunfavorableenvironmentalconditionse.g.floodedareas. • PalmsofTallvarietiesthatareabove60yearsandabove30yearsforDwarfs. • PalmsshowingsymptomsofattackbypestsanddiseasesasthoseshowninPlate16. 16 Plate16.Coconutplantsshowingpestanddiseasesymptoms(Photocredits:Myrieetal., 2014;OneTwoThreeInc.2015;Wordpress.org,2016;Dreamstime,2016b). 1.8Seednutharvest,selectionandstorage Thematurenutsareharvestedwhenatleastonenutintheoldestbunchstartsbecomingdry. InTallvarieties,ittakes11-12monthsfromfruitsetforanuttomaturewhereasinDwarfs, nuts will mature in 10 - 11 months after emergence of the inflorescence. These nuts can be easilyidentifiedwhentheepicarpofoneortwonutsinthebunchstartsturningbrown.They producearesonantandringingsoundwhenhitwiththeharvestingknifeortappedbyfinger indicatingthatthehuskisdry;immaturenutswillproduceadullsound(TNAU,2012). 17 Plate17.Coconutseednutharvest(Photocredits:Ponce,2013;TraineeAgriculturist inMalaysia,2013;HoDinhHai,2014;TNAU,2014) Bunches intended for seednut should be harvested by lowering them to the ground using a ropetoavoidinjurytotheembryoswhenpalmsaretallandthegroundishard.Seednutsfrom selectedmothertreesshouldbeharvestedseparatelyandnotmixedwithnutsfromunselected palms. It is preferable to collect seednuts that had undergone development during the rainy season. Nuts situated towards the top and bottom extremities of the bunch are not always uniform;theymaybeundersized,andrelativelylight-suchnutsdonotgerminateproperlyand shouldberejected. Seednutsthatareharvestedshouldcontainwater(testbyshaking)andshouldbestoredinthe shadeandcoveredwithfrondsforabout2weeksuntilthehuskbecomesdry(Plate18).This will facilitate speedy and maximum germination. Seednuts should be stored up to five layers high, for no more than 10 days for Dwarfs and no more than 21 days for Talls (Ghose and Gopalakrishnam,2013). Tall varieties are sown 1 or 2 months after collection whereas Dwarfs should be sown immediatelyafterharvestingarassoonaspossiblethereafter(TNAU,2012). 18 Plate18.Storageofselectedcoconutseednutsundertrees(Photocredit:TNAU,2012) 19 Chapter2–NurseryEstablishmentandManagement 2.0Introduction Successofcoconutplantationestablishmentstartswiththeproductionofgoodqualityplanting materials.Selectingthebestplantingmaterialsbeforefieldplantingassureshigherproductivity. Plantingcoconutseednutsdirectlyinthefieldisnotrecommendedandcaremustbetakenin choosingtheseedlingstostartaplantationsincehighqualityplantingmaterialsprovideagood headstarttosustainthecoconutpalmsproductiveandeconomiclifespanof60ormoreyears. The rearing of coconut seedlings in a well-maintained nursery facilitates efficient selection of normaluniformseedlings(Santosetal.,1996;BaylonandRivera,2016). TheauthorsofthepresentpublicationhaveobservedthatmostfarmersinCaribbeancountries do not practise proper nursery establishment and management and this lack of good agriculturalpracticeobviouslyimpactsnegativelyontheproductivityandincomegenerationof theirplantations.Thepresentpublicationisintendedtoprovideinformationonpropercoconut nursery establishment and management using high quality planting materials that have been selectedaccordingtoguidelinespresentedinChapter1. 2.1Stepsinestablishingandmanagingacoconutnursery Selectionofmotherpalmsforseednutproduction Seednutharvest,selectionandstorage Nurserysiteselection Seedbedpreparationinpre-nursery Plantinginthepre-nurseryseedbed Selectionofseedlingsfromthepre-nurseryforplantinginthenurserybed Plantinggerminatedseednutsinthenurserybeds [polybagscanbeusedinsteadofnurserybeds] Maintenanceofpre-nurseryseedbedsandnurserybeds Recordsandsignage Transplantingofseedlingsfromnurserybedstofield ThesestepsarealsoillustratedinPlate19. 20 Plate19.Stepsinestablishingandmanagingacoconutnursery(Photocredits:A. Mohammed;Flickriver,2016;123RFLtd,2016;pinterest.com,2016;ValleyWines, 2016;Indiamart,2016a;Dreamstime,2016a) 2.2Nurserysiteselection The production of coconut seedlings in a well–designed and maintained facility, facilitates efficientselectionofuniform,vigorousseedlings(Plate20).Thenurserycanbelocatedinthe interspacesofthecoconutplantationwherecoconuttreesprovideshadebutifanopenspace is selected, the area should be provided with shade using 50 - 75% shade cloth as shown in Plate20(TNAU,2012). Plate20.Well-designednurseryfacility,CentralFarm,Belize. 21 The nursery site should have the following characteristics (Santos et al., 1996; Ghose and Gopalakrishnam,2013): • • • • • • • Beopen,level,well-drainedandnotpronetoflooding. Havealightorloose-texturedsoiltofacilitatenurseryoperations;therefore,asandyor sandyloamsoilisrecommended. Haveadequateamountofsunlightandasourceofwaterforirrigationinclose proximity. Thesiteshouldhaveagriculturalaccessroadsfortransportation. Itshouldbeawayfrompotentialsourcesofpestsanddiseasesandbefencedfor security. Thesiteshouldhaveashedorcontainerstostorematerialsandsupplies,farm implementsandsmallequipment. Havesufficientlytrainedmanpoweravailabletocarryoutnurseryoperations. 2.3Seedbedpreparationinthepre-nursery Apre-nurseryisusedtoobtainuniformplantingmaterialpriortoplantinginanurseryproper. It facilitates the sorting of seedlings by age, size or colour, and is especially useful to identify and eliminate off-types. A pre-nursery is also useful to discard seednuts that do not sprout afteraspecifictime(3-4months,dependingonvariety)alongwithanychlorotic,contorted, damagedorotherwiseunsuitableseedlings(Harries,2016). Thesiteshouldbecleared,ploughedandrotovatedtoafinetilth(Plate21).Thebedsshouldbe 10-20cminheighttoprovideadequateroot-roomanddrainage.Theyshouldbe2minwidth toenableeaseofplanting,inspection,managementandmaintenanceoperations.Aspaceof60 cm between two beds will facilitate ease of inspection, selection, and seedling transfer activities(TNAU,2012). Awell-drainedplotwithfriable,sandyloam/loamsoilsisbestsuitedduetotherelativeeasein removing the seedlings from the nursery. Heavy clayey soils and waterlogged soils should be avoided.TheidealsoilpHrangesfrom5.5-7.0;however,seedlingsaretoleranttoapHrange of4.5-8.5(TNAU,2012). 22 Plate21.Nurseryseedbedpreparation(Photocredit:TNAU,2012). 2.4Plantinginthepre-nurseryseedbed The distance between two seednuts along the row should be about 15 cm and the distance betweentwoadjacentrowsshouldbe15-20cm.Seednutsshouldbelaidintrenchesinwhich thedepthis10–15cm.Theseednutsareplantedbyfirmlysettingthemeitherhorizontallyor verticallyorslightlytiltedwiththeembryoendatthetopandthewidestofthethreesegments uppermost. Vertically-planted seednuts suffer more from drought and are less robust than those from flat or horizontal planting although notching hastens their germination. With horizontal planting, rate of germination and subsequent growth of seedlings are faster compared to vertical planning; this is especially the case with Dwarf cultivars (TNAU, 2012; CoconutCultivationBoard,2011;GhoseandGopalakrishnan,2013). Theseednutsarethencoveredwithtopsoilsothat1/3oftheiruppersurfaceisvisible(Plate 22).Seednutsshouldnotbecompletelycoveredwithsoil.Fiverowsofnutsmaybeplantedin each bed accommodating 50 nuts per row. Each bed should carry the same variety and all seednutsshouldbeofthesameage.Itisbettertotimethesowingofseednutswiththeonset of the rains. Normally dry coconut fronds and/or coir can be utilized as a mulch for the seedbeds(GhoseandGopalakrishnam,2013). SeednutsofTallvarietiesbegingerminationwithin2-4monthsaftersowingandseednutsof Dwarfvarietiesusuallygerminate1-3monthsaftersowing.Generally,germinationisrecorded tillthefifthmonthofsowingandagoodseedlotwillhave80-90%germination.Seednutsthat do not germinate within 5 months can be removed from the pre-nursery and composted. A 12% discard of seedlings is acceptable at the pre-nursery seedbed stage (Coconut Research InstituteofSriLanka,2006;TNAU,2012). 23 Plate22.Seednutssowninpre-nurserybeds(Photocredit:CoconutDevelopment Board,2014).Distancebetweenseednutsalongrow≈15cm;interowspacing =15-20cm. 2.5Selectionofseedlingsfromthepre-nurseryforplantinginthe mainnurserybed After4months,early-germinatednutswhichhaveabout5–6cmlongshootsareselectedfor transplantingintomainnurserybeds(Plate23)orintopolyethylenebags.Thisoperationallows theseedlingsmorespacetogrowvigorouslyandpermitsscreeningoutofunsuitableseedlings. Earlinessofgerminationiscorrelatedwithearlyyieldandearlysplittingofleavesintoleafletsis directlyrelatedwithspeedofgermination(Santosetal,1996). Seedlings with sprouts that are single, sturdy, straight and well-set into the husk should be selected. Off-colour seedlings and those with thin or spindly sprouts, 2 or more stems and short leaf blade should be discarded. All selected seedlings must be free from diseases and pests(NagarjunaGroup,2016). 24 Plate23.Seedlingsinpre-nurseryreadyforselectionandmovetothemainnursery about4monthsaftersowing(Photocredit:Indiamart,2016a). 2.6Plantinggerminatedseednutsinthemainnurserybeds Selectedgerminatednutsareremovedfromtheseedbedbyliftingwithaspadeandtheroots aretrimmedbeforetransferringtothenurserybedwhichhassoiloffinetilth.Thetrimmingof therootsassiststheseedlingstoestablishquicklyandwillinducethemtoproducenewroots. Seedlingsshouldneverbeliftedfromthesoilbypullingtheleavesorstem(TNAU,2012). Seedlingsshouldbeplantedasearlyaspossibleafterremovalfromthepre-nursery;theyare planted 1/3 deep in the soil. All vacated plots in the pre-nursery seedbed should be refilled with topsoil so as not to destabilize the remaining ungerminated seednuts. The spacing of seedlingsinthemainnurseryshouldbeasshowninPlate24(TNAU,2012;KissanKerala,2016). Plate24.Plantingdistancesforseedlingsinthemainnurserybed (Photocredit:Dreamstime,2016a). 25 2.7 Maintenanceofpre-nurseryseedbedsandmainnurserybeds 2.7.1 Irrigation After sowing, the seednuts should be irrigated thoroughly to saturation levels (TNAU, 2012). Theseedbedsshouldbeirrigatedregularlytoensurethatthesoilismoist.Regularapplication ofwateriscompulsoryunderdryweatherconditions.Keepseednutscoolbysprinklingwater onthenutsasrequired,toavoiddryingoutofwaterintheendosperm.Thiscanbedoneusing overhead sprinklers or a garden hose fitted with a nozzle. In the pre-nursery beds, apply 0.5 litres water to each sprouted seedling at least once every 3 - 4 days depending on weather conditions(CoconutCultivationBoard,2011).Inthenurserybed,apply1litreofwatertoeach seedlingevery2daysifthereisnorain. 2.7.2 WeedManagement Weedinghelpsinmoistureconservationoftheseedbedandshouldbeconductedmanuallyby hand-pullingonceortwicepermonth(CoconutCultivationBoard,2011)orwithawickwiper containingasystemicherbicide. 2.7.3 Fertiliserapplication Chemical fertilisers need not be applied to the seedlings in the pre-nursery during the first 2 monthsaftersowingsincetheseedlingsareusuallynourishedbytheendosperm(TNAU,2014). Thereafter,ablendoffertiliserscanbepreparedbymixing1unitureawith2unitsTSPand4 unitsKCl.Theblendshouldbeappliedatarateof30g/plantat2monthsaftergerminationand at 60 g/plant at the 4th and 6th months. From the 2-month stage and onwards, a solution of MgS0₄shouldbeappliedmonthlyatarateof10mlper4.5litreswater(Ramkhelawan,2013). 2.7.4 Mulching During hot, dry periods, pre-nursery and main nursery beds can be shaded with 65% shade cloth,mountedonposts2mhigh(Plate20).Thesurfaceofthebedcanbemulchedwithdry fronds and/or coir (Plate 25). This can promote early and more efficient germination, good seedlinggrowthandbetterestablishment. 26 Plate25.Coconutseedlingsmulchedwithcoconutcoir,BartonIsles,Jamaica. 2.7.5 Pestanddiseasemanagementinthenursery Careful inspections should be regularly made to detect incidence of pest and diseases in the nursery. Scales, whiteflies and mealy bugs are often found on the underside of the leaves. Dimethoatesprayedat0.05%andaspreaderstickercanbealternatedwithTriazophos40%EC tokeepthesepestsatamanageablelevel.Thebiologicalinsecticide,BioneemorNeemexcan besprayedwithastickerontotheundersurfaceoftheleavestocontrolmites. For leaf spot and bud rot diseases, preventative treatments of 1% Bordeaux fungicide alternated with 0.3% Idofil M-45 should applied twice per month. Severely infected leaves shouldberemovedandburnt(Ramkhelawan,2013). 2.7.6 Seedlingselectionfromthemainnurserybedfortransplantingtothefield After4-5monthsinthemainnurserybed,seedlingsarereadyforplantingoutinthefieldand thisshouldcoincidewiththeonsetofrains.Properselectionofseedlingsinthemainnursery aloneensuresa10%improvementinyield.Thefollowingconsiderationsshouldbemadewhen selectingseedlingsfortransplantingtothefield(Plate26): • Shootsshouldhaveagirthof10-12cmatthecollar. • There should be a minimum of 6 leaves with youngest already differentiated into leaflets. • Theleafstalksshouldbeshortandthick. • Seedlingsshouldhavearobusthealthyappearanceandfreefrompestsanddiseases. • If rigorous standards of selection are adopted, 60 - 65% high quality seedlings in a nurserycanbeobtainedfromthetotalnutssown(GhoseandGopalakrishnam,2013). Seedlingsthatdonotmeetthesecriteriashouldberejected(Plate27). 27 Figure 1 shows a timeline for the various stages of operations in the pre-nursery and main nurserypriortoplantingouttheseedlingsintheopenfield. Figure1.Timelineofpre-nurseryandmainnurseryoperationspriortoplantingoutthe seedlingsintheopenfield. Seedlings should be removed from the main nursery by lifting with a spade and the roots carefullycut.Seedlingsshouldneverbeliftedfromthesoilbypullingtheleavesorstem.Itis importanttokeeptheseedlingsintheshadeandoutofthesunandtohavethemplantedas earlyaspossibleafterremovalfromthemainnursery(KissanKerala,2016). Plate26.Seedlingsbeingremovedfromnurserybedforplantinginthefield. 28 Plate27.Poorseedlingsthatshouldberejected(left)andgoodselectedseedlings(right) (SketchfromElfick,2016) 2.8 Productionofseedlingsinpolyethylenebags(polybags) Coconutseedlingscanalsobeproducedinpolybags(Plate28).Theadvantagesofusing polybagsinsteadoffieldplotsareasfollows(Santosetal.,1996;Thomas,2007): • Producingmorevigorousseedlingwithbetterrootsystem. • Betterestablishmentandearlybearing. • Transplantingshockisgreatlyminimizedsincethereisnorootdamage,thereby promotingearlyestablishmentoftransplantedseedlings. • Seedlingscanberetainedlongerinthenurserywhenconditionsforfieldplantingare notfavourable. • Weeding,wateringandeliminationofunwantedseedlingsaswellasseedlingselection forplantingouttofieldaremoreeasilyaccomplished. However, in the Caribbean, a polybag nursery can be quite expensive (cost of media, bags, labour,transportofbagswithseedlings). Usingthistypeofnursery,polybags,preferablyblack,UVresistantfordurabilityandmeasuring 40 - 45 cm wide with 8 - 10 holes at bottom and sides are half-filled with soil and compost mixedata50:50ratio.Decomposedsawdust,corncobs,ricehullandotherorganicmaterials canbeusedsoastoreducetheweightofthehalf-filledpolybagandimprovedrainageandsoil fertility(Santosetal.,1996). Polybagplantingmethod1 Inthismethod,theseednutsareparedatthetoptofacilitateemergenceofthesprout(Plate 28).Thenutisthenplacedinthehalf-filledbagintheuprightpositioninthecentreofthebag. Next, the bag is filled with soil with the sides slightly pressed to keep the nut firm until it is almostcovered.Asthesoilsettles,itwillcoverupto2/3ofthenut(Santosetal.,1996). 29 Plate28.Paredseednutplacedinpolybag(LeftdiagramfromElfick,2016;rightdiagram redrawnfromElfick,2016). Inthismethod,thereisnopre-nurserysincetheseednutsareplaceddirectlyintothepolybag before they are germinated. The germinated seedlings are later picked out from the nursery once 80% of the nuts have germinated or about 5 months from sowing, whichever is earlier, andthenlaidoutinthenurseryasshowninPlate30. Polybagplantingmethod2 Inthismethod,thenutsaresowninapre-nurserybedasexplainedinSection2.4andwhenthe sprouts are 5 - 6 cm long (about 4 months after sowing), each seedling is then placed in the half-filledpolybagwiththesproutinanuprightpositioninthecentreofthebag(Santosetal., 1996;Thomas,2007).Next,thebagisfilledwithsoilwiththesidesslightlypressedtokeepthe nutfirmuntilitisalmostcovered(Plate29). In both methods, the size of a polybag nursery could be 3 m x 6 m with about 1.5 m spaces betweenplots(Plate29).Eachplotwilleasilyaccommodateabout115seedlings. Plate29.Earlystepsofcoconutpolybagnursery(Photocredits:TraineeAgriculturalistin Malaysia,2013;CoconutDevelopmentBoard,2013b). 30 At5-6monthsaftersowing,thepolybaggedseedlingsarelaidoutinalargerpolybagnursery asshowninPlate30(Nos.1and2).Equalsettingoftheseedlingsatoptimumdistanceallows themmorespacetogrowanddeveloprapidly.Thetechniquefollowsatriangularsystemwith equalspacingof60cm. The polybagged seedlings are set in the same order as they germinated with the earliest germinatingseedlingsbeingplacedinthefirstrowintheeasternsideofthearea.Thelastones to germinate are placed in the western section of the area. This practice reduces the competition for sunlight from among the earliest and latest germinating seedlings. Most importantly, selection of vigorous seedlings is facilitated and since the first pricked seedlings areplacedinrows,cullingorjudgingbyageiseasilyaccomplished(TNAU,2014). Plate30.Layingoutofpolybags(Diagramandphotocredits:Santosetal.,1996; TraineeAgriculturistinMalaysia,2013;CoconutDevelopmentBoard, 2013b;Elfick,2016). 2.8.1Maintenanceofpolybagnursery Thesamepracticesofwatering,weedingandinspectionforpestanddiseaseincidenceusedin prenurseryandfieldplotnurseryproductionofseedlingsarerecommended.Apply30gperbag per month of granular fertiliser (mix 1 unit urea + 2 units TSP + 2 units KCl + 1 unit MgSO₄) directlytothesoilmix,inaringaroundtheseednut(Ramkhelawan,2013).Afterwards,thesoil is lightly cultivated to promote faster dissolution and absorption of fertiliser. Topping up the surfaceofthesoilmixwithcoircanpreventweedgrowthandreduceevapotranspiration(Plate 30(No.3). 31 2.8.2Transplantingfrompolybagstothefield Leaf splitting (differentiation) occurs 4 - 5 months after polybagging, indicating that the seedlings are ready for field planting. Transplanting steps from the polybag to the field are showninPlate30(No.4). 2.9 Recordsandsignageinnurserybeds Inadditiontokeepingarecordsfile,asignboardshouldbeplacedinfrontofeachnurserybed andshouldprovidethefollowinginformation(Santosetal.,1996;BaylonandRivera,2016): • • • • • • Nameofvariety/cultivar. Datewhennutswereharvested. Datewhennutswerereceivedinthenursery. Dateofsowing. Numberofseedssown. Seedbednumber. 32 CHAPTER3–Culturalpracticesforcoconut 3.0Introduction Prior to 2007, many coconut farms in the Caribbean were left abandoned for several years because of negative marketing and high incidences of pests and diseases. Recently, due to greatly-improvedmarketdemandforcoconutproducts,manyfarmersaredesperatelytryingto rehabilitate their farms and/or bringing new areas under cultivation. In these efforts, they require improved varieties and knowledge of good agricultural practices and integrated pest management. This chapter attempts to provide information on the cultural practices necessary for the coconutplanttorealizeitsoptimumpotentialintermsofproductionandproductivity. 3.1Ecologicalrequirementsofcoconut Coconutpalmscangrowinvariousenvironments,althoughcertainecologicalconditionslimit their growth. Several agro-climatic factors affect productivity, including altitude, rainfall, temperature, relative humidity, wind, solar radiation, daylength and, soil type including its physicalandchemicalproperties(Darwis,1990;WaneyandTujuwale,2002). Altitude affects coconut production and oil content. The higher the elevation, the lower the temperature. Optimum altitudes are below 400 m at latitudes between 30° N and 30° S but coconutplantscangrowwelluptoanelevationof900matthissamerangeoflatitudes.Trees that grow at elevations above 500 m produce a thin endosperm and low oil content (Waney andTujuwale,2002). Coconutpalmsthrivewellunderanevenlydistributedannualrainfallrangingfrom1,000mmto 3,000mm.Asuitableannualrainfallrangesfrom1200to2500mmperyear(Darwis,1990;De Taffin, 1998). Rainfall distribution also plays a key role in determining coconut growth and productionandshouldbeatleast130mmpermonth.Asthetreestoreslittlemoistureandhas notaproots,itisnotsuitedforregionswithlongandpronounceddryspellsduringwhichthe watertableisconsiderablyreduced.Awatertablethatistoohighandremainsstagnantover long periods is also harmful to the palm. When rainfall drops below 1,000 mm per year or when rainfall distribution is uneven, coconuts can be grown successfully only when irrigated (Darwis,1990;DeTaffin,1998). For optimum growth and maximum yield, the mean annual temperature should be approximately27°C withadiurnalvariationof6°Cto7°C andarelativehumidityat80-90%. An average ambient temperature of 27°C is good (less than 20°C and more than 34°C is not suitable). When the average monthly minimum temperature is less than 18°C, growth is 33 reduced and female flowers abort. However, some varieties may produce satisfactorily at temperatures less than 18°C. Optimum sunlight is 2000 - 2200 hours per annum with the minimumbeing1500hours/annumor125hourspermonth(WaneyandTujuwale,2002). Regions which are subject to frequent stormy conditions and hurricanes are not suitable for growing the coconut palm. Dwarf palms are generally less resistant than the Talls to strong windsbecauseoftheformer’sshallowerrootsystem.Treesaremostatriskfromuprootingat 3–5yearsoldsincetherootsystemislesswell-developedthantheabove-groundbiomass(De Taffin,1988). Coconut is grown under different soil types such as loamy, lateritic, coastal sandy, alluvial, clayeyandreclaimedsoilsofmarshylowlands.Theidealsoilconditionsforbettergrowthand performanceofthepalmareloosewell-drainedsoilsabout50-100cmdeepwithgoodwaterholdingcapacity,apHrangingof5.2-8.0,presenceofwatertablewithin3mand,absenceof rock or any hard substratum within 2 m of the surface. Production is limited by shallow and compacted soils, heavy clays, waterlogging and drought (Ghose and Gopalakrishnan, 2013; CoconutDevelopmentBoard,2013a). Every aspect in the production cycle for coconuts should have associated with it a set of protocolstoensuretheuseofgoodagriculturalpractices(GAPs). 3.2Sitelayout,landpreparationandplanting This is influenced by the choice of the farming system to be employed, for example, monoculture, intercropping, or mixed farming. Ideally, the land should be completely cleared ensuring minimal disturbance of the topsoil layer. Compacted soils should be ploughed and rotovated to provide adequate drainage. Shallow soils with underlying hard rock, low-lying areas subject to water stagnation and clayey soils are to be avoided. Raised, cambered beds shouldbeestablishedinareaspronetowaterloggingbutmovementofsub-soiluntothetopof thecamberedbedscanprovideanunsuitablechemicalenvironment.Fieldbordersshouldbe establishedalongwithfencelines,accessroads,bridges,crossings,maindrains,andchannels, ponds or wells for irrigation and other infrastructure. Proper supply of moisture through irrigation should be ensured before planting. Also, planting should coincide with the onset of rains(Santosetal.,1996;CoconutDevelopmentBoard,2013a). 3.3Plantingsystem The selection of the appropriate planting system is influenced by varieties, type of farming system (monocrop or intercrop), climatic and soil conditions. The various field arrangement systemsrecommendedbytheCoconutDevelopmentBoard(2013a)canbeseeninPlate31. 34 Plate 31. Spacing and systems of planting coconut varieties under favourable agroecological conditions(RedrawnfromCoconutDevelopmentBoard,2013a). TheCoconutResearchInstituteofSriLanka(2016a)workinginvariousregionsofthecountry, recommended that 8 m should be used for square plantings (158 seedlings/ha), 8.5 m for triangularplantings(158seedlings/ha),7.3x8.5mforrectangularplantings(164seedlings/ha) and7.3x9.2m–11.1mforintercroppingsystems(149–140seedlings/ha).DeTaffin(1998) statedthatTallvarietiesmaybeplanted9mbetweentrees(160plantsperha),Hybrids(DxT) 8mbetweentrees(180plantsperha)and,Dwarfs7mbetweentrees(235plantsperha). Thecoconutpalmgrowssymmetricallyandmaximumlightavailabilityisobtainedbyplanting palmtreesinanequilateraltriangle(Plate31),suchthateachrowoftreesisstaggeredbyhalf the planting distance in relation to the trees in the rows on either side. Each tree is thus equidistantfromthesixnearesttrees. Fieldsshouldbelinedaccordingtotheplantingarrangementsandplantspacing.Inthevarious planting arrangements, rows should be aligned North – South to allow maximum sunlight to eachplant.Thetaskofliningupconsistsofusingstakes1.2–1.5mlongtomarktherowssoas toobtaintherequiredplantingdensity.Somestringandameasuringtapecanbeusedinsmall areas;forlargerareas,precisioninstrumentssuchasasightingtelescopeortheodolitecanbe used(DeTaffin,1998). 3.4Planting Planting should be done at the beginning of the rainy season. Hence, timing of the nursery shouldbeplannedinaccordancewiththeseasonalchanges.Seedlingsshouldbe8-10months ofageforbettergrowthanddevelopment.Theyshouldbeplantedimmediatelyoratleast3 daysafterremovalfromthenurserytoavoidmortality(Santosetal.,1996). For each planting hole, an area of soil 1 m in circumference is cleared of all vegetation and levelled.Infertilesoils,holesshouldbedug30x30x30cmandinmarginalsoils,holes90x90 x90cmarerecommended.Theplantingholescanbedugatleast1monthbeforeplantingand filledwithamixtureoftopsoil,coconuthusks,woodashandwell-decomposedmanurewhichis 35 thenallowedtosettle.Seedlingsaretransportedtotheplantingsitebytractorandtraileror truck(DeTaffin,1998). Theseedlingisthenplacedintheholeandbackfilledwithtopsoilmixedwith30gNPK(12-2412).Handletheseedlingcarefullysothatthesproutisnotdamaged.Thenutiscoveredwith soilmixwhichisgentlypressedintoplacesothatthecentralbudandthecollaroftheshootis abovethesoillevel.Thesurroundingsoilaroundtheseedlingisrakedthentheseedlingsare irrigatedadequately.Irrigationisrecommendedimmediatelyafterplanting.Astheplantgrows, soilisbackfilledtothesurroundingsoillevel. Plate32.Methodofplantingcoconutinthefieldandlatercropestablishment (SeedlingphotobyDreamstime,2016a). 3.5Fieldmaintenance 3.5.1Earlyseedlingcare Soil washed and accumulated around seedling collar should be removed. Pits should be widenedeveryyearbeforetheapplicationofmanureandgraduallyfilledastheseedlingsgrow. 3.5.2Irrigationanddrainage It is important that rainfall be well distributed throughout the year for optimum coconut production.Irrigationisnecessarytoprovidesufficientsoilmoistureduringdryperiodsandso ensuregoodgrowth,developmentandyield.Anadultpalmrequires600to800litresofwater once in 4 - 7 days (Coconut Development Board, 2013a). The production of female flowers and setting percentage increases significantly under irrigation. During periods of drought, there is high mortalityoftransplantedseedlings,sheddingofyoungnuts,dryingandhangingdownofolder frondsand,failureofyoungfrondstoopen. Duringyear1inthelifeoftheyoungplant,irrigationshouldbedoneatarateof20litresof water per plant per week; and, in the second year, 45 litres per plant once in 4 days (TNAU, 2012).Basinirrigationispractisedbyapplicationof200litreswateroncein4daystoashallow 36 radialbasindugaroundtheplant.Incoastalsandysoils,seawatercanbeusedforirrigationof palmsolderthan2years(CoconutDevelopmentBoard,2013a). Scarcityofwaterandincreasingcostoflabourandenergymakedripirrigationaviableoption to flood, basin or overhead sprinkler irrigation. Drip irrigation makes more efficient use of water, labour and energy. It enhances plant growth and yield and is most suitable for soils havingalowwater-holdingcapacityandundulatingterrain.Itreducesweedgrowth,improves efficiencyoffertiliseruseandfacilitatesfertigation.Incoconutproduction,4drippers/emitters pertreeisrecommended(TNAU,2012).Watercanbeappliedattherateof65-75litresper palmperdayduringdrymonths. Plate33.Dripirrigationandfertiliserapplicationtococonut(Diagramadaptedfrom Elfick,2016;Photocredit:CoconutResearchInstituteofSriLanka,2016b). Field drainage should be conducted to remove excess soil moisture for proper tree development.Aminimumof50cmofdepthofwell-drainedsoilshouldbemaintainedduring wetperiods. 3.5.3.NutritionandFertilisation Coconut palms require adequate nutrition during the early years. Young plants that receive fertiliser prior to flowering, grow faster, produce more and larger leaves, come into bearing earlierthanunfertilisedpalmsand,producemoreandlargernuts(CIB,2015a).Themostrapid growthoccursbetweenthesecondandfifthyearinthelifeofthecoconutpalm.Supportingthe crownisthestemandthelattergrows30-50cmperyear,uptoabout40years.Drymatter productionisabout50-80kgperyear.Initsprime,acoconutpalmnormallyproduces12-15 leavesandabout80-100waternutsperyear(ChanandElevitch,2006). FromexperienceinJamaica,useoffertilisergaveyieldincreasesof14–58nutspertreeper year while approximately 7 nuts were needed to pay for the annual cost of fertiliser (CIB, 2015a). 37 Soils in old coconut plantations are expected to be impoverished if there was no fertiliser programme in place. Planting new and improved palms to replace old coconut groves makes verylittlesenseifadequatenutrientsarenotsuppliedtotheplants. Nitrogen is important in promoting leaf growth and development. Deficiencies in phosphorus retardpalmgrowthanddelayflowering.Inpotassiumdeficientsoils,potassiumfertilizershave a positive effect on the number of inflorescences, number of bunches, number of nuts per bunch,andtotalnutproduction. DataobtainedfromsoiltestsdoneincoconutgrowingareasinTrinidadandTobago,alongwith the nutrients required to produce 100 nuts per year, were used to formulate a fertiliser recommendation (Ramkhelawan, 2013). The fertiliser formulation recommended is 15-5-20 NPK.ThefertiliserratesperpalmatdifferentagesareshowninTable1. Table1.Rateoffertiliserapplicationof15-5-20NPKperpalmperyear (Ramkhelawan,2013) Ageofpalm Application Numberofapplications (kg/tree/year) Adult>4years 2.00 June&December 1yearandless 0.20 Atplanting&6monthslater 2years 0.60 June&December 3years 1.20 June&December Alternatively, instead of using 15-5-20, urea, triple super phosphate (TSP) and potash can be purchasedandblendedintheratio(byweight):3urea:1TSP:3potash.Thisblendcanthenbe applied at the rate shown in Table 1. In addition to the recommendations shown in Table 1, wheresoilsareacidic,2kgoffinelygrounddolomitelimestoneshouldbeappliedperadulttree peryear. The Jamaica Coconut Industry Board (CIB, 2015a) recommends that fertiliser should not be placedintheplantingholebecausetheplantedseedlingisstillfeedingontheendosperm.The CIB has recommended that first application of fertiliser should be made 3 - 6 months after planting by which time active feeding roots will have developed. Subsequent applications shouldbemadeat6-monthlyintervals.Thefertilisermustbespreadoverthezonewherethe active root tips occur. This zone stretches from the base of the palm to the limit of the leaf spread(Plate33). Duringthefirstyear,fertilisershouldbeappliedinacircle15–20cmfromtheseedlingstem. Subsequent applications should be made in wider circles as the roots grow outwards. For bearingtrees,fertilisershouldbespreadabout2mfromthebaseofthetrunk(Plates33and 34).Onslopinglands,thefertilizershouldbeincorporatedtoadepthof15cmatvariouspoints atthesameradiusasdescribedpreviously. 38 Coconut husks are high in potash. Burying fresh or dried husks around the palm may reduce fertiliser cost through nutrient cycling. It can also increase retention of moisture and benefit drought-proneareas.Fortheplacementofthehusks,circulartrenchesmaybedug2mfrom thetrunk,0.5mwideandatthesamedepth.Thebeneficialeffectofhuskburialwasreported tolast5-7years.Theapplicationoffullydecomposedfarmyardmanure,whereavailableand economic,hasalsobeenfoundtobebeneficialtothepalms(Ramkhelawan,2013).However,it should be noted that the use of organic material can attract the Rhinoceros beetle (Section 4.6.1). Plate34.Preparationofcirclearoundtrunkofcoconuttreetofacilitatefertiliser application(Photocredit:CoconutDevelopmentBoard,2013a). 3.5.4Nutritionaldeficienciesincoconutandcorrectivemeasures (DeTaffin,1998;Manoharan,2012;TNAU,2014;Vikaspedia,2016) CoconutnutritionaldeficienciescanbecausedbyhighsoilpH,deepplanting,poorsoilaeration and nutrient imbalances. Correction of nutritional deficiencies can take up to 2 – 3 years; therefore, prevention of deficiencies by proper crop nutrition is important. The following are some of the more important chemical elements for coconut and recommendations to amelioratedeficiencies: i.Nitrogen:Thesupplyofnitrogenwhichisaconstituentofplantcellsaswellaschlorophyll,is of great importance for rapid development and vegetative growth. Nitrogen deficiency in coconut(Plate35)beginsasauniformlightgreendiscoloration/yellowing(uniformchlorosis)of theoldestleaves.Yellowingstartsfromthetiptobaseofthelowerleavesandproceedstothe upper whorls. As the deficiency progresses, younger leaves also become golden yellow in colour. Growth virtually stops followed by shedding of leaves when nitrogen deficiency is severe. Correction measure: Foliar application of 2% urea at fortnightly intervals or soil applicationof1.0kgureapertree. 39 ii. Phosphorus: Phosphorus is important for cell division and plays an important role in root growth and increased yields. Deficiency (Plate 35) occurs in acid and alkaline soils. The symptoms of phosphorus deficiency include purple coloration of leaves and, in severe cases, the leaves may turn yellow before drying prematurely. There is premature leaf shedding, reductioninleafsizeandleafnumbersandretardedrootgrowth. Correction measure: Foliar spray of diammonium phosphate (DAP) 2% at fortnightly intervalsorsoilapplicationoffarmyardmanureattherateof5kgpertree. iii. Potassium: Potassium has its important and specific functions apart from those which it jointly performs in association with phosphorus. It regulates the water economy of the plant andsoisindispensablefortherationalutilizationoflimitedwatersuppliesfortheproductionof the highest possible yields. It enables the plant to withstand drought. Potassium is known to help root development, enabling the palm to take up more nutrients from the soil. Since the nutrient is particularly necessary for the formation of sugar, fat, and fibrous material, the coconutpalmhasahighrequirementofpotash. Deficiencysymptoms(Plate35)firstappearonoldestleavesandlaterspreadtoyoungleaves. Translucentyellowororangespotsdeveloponleaflets(yellowingofleafmargin).Olderleaves show necrotic spotting as well curling of leaflet tips. Leaflets with necrotic areas along the margins later wither and the tree appears yellow while the trunk becomes slender with few shortleaves. Correctionmeasure: Broadcastafertiliserhavingananalysisof8-2-12-4Mgatarateof 1kgper13.7sq.mofcanopy areaevery3months. Correctionofpotassiumdeficiency cantakeupto3years. Plate35.Nutrientdeficienciesofmajorelementsincoconut(Photocredits:TNAU,2014; Growables,2014;FarmsysAgro,2015;UF/IFAS,2015a;Vikaspedia,2016). 40 iv.Boron:Oneoftheearliestsymptomsofborondeficiency(Plate36)oncoconutpalmisleaf wrinklingwhichismanifestedassharply-bentleaflettips,commonlycalled“hookleaf”.Leaves have a serrated zigzag appearance. Symptoms always occur on newly emerging leaves, and remain visible on these leaves as they mature and are replaced by younger leaves. Another commonsymptomisthefailureofnewlyemergingspearleavestoopennormally.Atachronic stage, multiple unopened spear leaves may be visible at the apex of the canopy. Boron deficiencyalsooccursininflorescenceandnutswhichbecomenecrotic. Correctionmeasure:Applicationofborax/sodiumtetraborate0.2%(2g/lofwater)ata rateof75-100mlperseedlingafterwhich30-50gcanbeappliedtoeachadulttree onceevery2years. v.Manganese:Manganeseaidstheformationofchlorophyllinleaves.Itispresentmostlyin lowerleavesandprovidesfavourablegrowthconditionsduringyoungerstagesofthepalm.The newest leaves of manganese deficient palms emerge chlorotic with longitudinal necrotic streaks.Asthedeficiencyprogresses,newlyemergingleafletsappearnecroticandwitheredon allbutbasalportionsoftheleaflets.Thiswitheringresultsinacurlingoftheleafletsaboutthe rachisgivingtheleafafrizzledappearance(‘frizzletop’).Inseverelymanganesedeficientpalms, growthstopsandnewlyemergingleavesconsistsolelyofnecroticpetiolestubs. Correctionmeasure:SoilapplicationofMnSO₄atarateof10kg/acre. vi. Magnesium: Magnesium has beneficial effects on the general growth and productivity of thecoconutpalm.Itimprovesproductionofmorefemaleflowers,theirsettingpercentageand resultsinagreaternumberofnutsperbunch.Italsoplaysanimportantroleinphotosynthesis andgreennessofleaves.Magnesiumdeficiency(Plate36)appearsontheoldestleavesofpalms as broad chlorotic (yellow) bands along the margins with the central portion of the leaves remaining distinctly green. In severe cases, leaflet tips may become necrotic. Older leaves become bronzed and have a dry appearance. Leaflets show necrosis and turn reddish brown withtranslucentspots.Yellowingstartsatthetipandspreadstothebase. Correctionmeasure:SoilapplicationofMgSO₄atarateof1-2kg/tree/year. vii.Sulphur:Sulphurisusefulintheformationofaminoacids,proteins,andoils.Itisnecessary for chlorophyll formation, helps develop and activate certain enzymes and vitamins, and is a structural component of two of the 21 amino acids that form protein. Typical deficiency symptoms (Plate 36) are yellowish-green or yellowish-orange leaflets. In older palms, leaf numberandsizearereduced.Sometimesanapronofdeadfrondsdevelopsaroundthestem due to weakness of the rachis. Nuts may fall prematurely and copra is rubbery and of poor marketquality. Correctionmeasure:Soilapplicationofgypsumatarateof2-5kg/tree/year. viii. Zinc: Zinc is needed for the creation of the plant growth hormone auxin and the green chlorophyllandcytochromepigments.Itplaysanimportantroleintheformationofenzymes andcarbohydrates,regulationofstarchesand,properrootdevelopment.Zincdeficiency(Plate 36)occursmostlyinsalinesoilsandischaracterizedbytheformationofsmallleaveswherein 41 the leaf size is reduced by 50%. Leaflets become chlorotic, narrow and reduced in length. In acutedeficiency,floweringisdelayedandmanysmallnutsabortandfall(button-shedding). Correctionmeasure:SoilapplicationofZnSO₄atarateof10kg/acre. ix.Calcium:Calciumdeficiency(Plate36)occursonlyinacidsoilsandcausesyoungleavesto exhibit narrow white bands at the margins; these show interveinal chlorosis and a rusty appearance.Thereis“crimping”orrollingupofleaves. Correction measure: Soil application of lime based on severity of the deficiency. An applicationof1%calciumnitratetothesoilishelpfulinsomesituations. x. Copper: Copper deficiency (Plate 36) causes a bluish leaf appearance with leaf ends becomingbleachedgrey.Inseverecases,theplantfailstoproduceflowers. Correctionmeasure:SoilapplicationofCuSO4atarateof10kg/acre. xi.Iron: Irondeficiencyusuallyappearsonpalmsgrowinginpoorlyaeratedsoilsorthosethat havebeenplantedtoodeeply.Water-loggedsoilsanddeepplantingeffectivelysuffocatethe rootsandreducetheireffectivenessintakingupnutrientssuchasiron.Themainsymptomof irondeficiencyischlorosisoryellowingbetweentheveinsofnewleaves(uniformchloroticnew leavesasthedeficiencyprogresses,thetipsbecomenecroticandleafsizereduced). Correctionmeasure:ApplicationofFeSO4attherateof0.25-0.5kg/tree/year. Plate36.Nutrientdeficienciesofminorelementsincoconut(Photocredits:CPCRI,2007; TNAU,2014;Growables,2014;FarmsysAgro,2015;Vikaspedia,2016) 42 3.5.5Weedmanagement Weedsareaperennialproblemincoconutplantationsandcausesignificantlossesintermsofnutyield. Management of the understory weed growth is, therefore, considered an essential step in maintainingcoconutplantations.Thecostofweedingaccountsforasubstantialproportionof thetotalrecurrentexpenditureformaintenanceofplantations.Heavyweedgrowthmakesthe collectionoffallennutsadifficultexercise. Seedling pits should be cleared of weeds periodically. In newly-planted fields, after lining the fields, a good practice is to spray weedicide in a circle around each peg marking the planting hole.Thiswillensureaweed-freeenvironmentevenbeforeplantingout,thusgivingtheplant about2-3monthstoproperlyestablishitself.Failingthis,weedcontrolshouldbedoneassoon aspossibleafterplantingtoavoidweedcompetition(CIB,2015b). Weedcontrolmaybedonebytractor-drawnbrushcutters,hand-heldbrushcuttersalongwith herbicides (for broad-leaved weeds, pre-emergence spraying of atrazine at 1 kg a.i./ha; for grasses and sedges, post-emergence spraying of glyphosate at 10 ml and 20 g ammonium sulphate/litre of water) directed away from the coconut plant (TNAU, 2012). Experiments in Jamaica have shown that when weeds are controlled with weedkillers, young coconut palms grow 50% faster and come into bearing 2 years earlier than when weeds are cutlassed (CIB, 2015b). Also, cattle (along with sheep and goats) have been used for weed control in adult coconut plantations(SenarathneandGunathilake,2012).ThisisdiscussedatlengthinChapter6. 3.6Harvestingandhandling Harvestingcoconutsforwaterprocessing(FAO,2007) Thevolumeofwaterthatcanberecoveredfromacoconutvariesaccordingtovarietyandlevel of maturity. Maypan hybrid varieties, for example, yield larger volumes than Dwarf green, yellowandorangevarieties.TallvarietiesyieldmorewaterpernutthanDwarfsbutDwarfsare earlier-maturing and produce more nuts per tree. Dwarf varieties are grown mainly for water productionsincetheendospermdoesnotthickenenoughnoryieldsenoughoiltoeconomically warrantitsuseforoilproduction.Productivetreescanyieldover100nutspertreeperyearand goodyieldingtreesshouldhavemorethan375mlwaterpernut. Nuts on the same bunch ripen at the same time. At 6 - 7 months after pollination, the endosperm is mainly liquid (coconut water) and can be harvested for water (TNAU, 2012). About1-2monthsafterthisstage,thatis,about8-9monthsafterpollination,themeator jelly is still soft (soft endosperm) and this can be scooped with a spoon and consumed along with the water (Plate 37); the water quality is best at this stage and is the ideal stage for harvestingthenutforwater. 43 Bunches of tender nuts can be harvested at monthly intervals. Ideally, the time of harvest shouldbethecoolpartsofthedaytoreducenutdeterioration.Inwell-maintainedandhighyielding plantations, bunches for water are harvested at 45 – 60 day intervals (Ghose and Gopalakrishnan, 2013). However, considering hired labour cost, the recommended harvesting cycleisevery45daysforpracticalandeconomicreasons(TNAU,2012).Twotothreebunches ofcoconutscanbeharvestedatthesametimefromeachpalmifthiscycleisfollowed. Plate37.Coconutjellyfrom8–montholdMalayanGreencultivar. Coconutsshouldneverbeallowedtofalltothegroundduringharvestingforwaterasthiscould leadtomechanicalinjuryandfacilitatetheentryofmicroorganismswhichcausespoilageofthe water.Nutssufferingcracksduringharvestinghavebeenfoundtoyieldwaterthatwascloudy, ofhighpHandhavingahigherfreefattyacidcontent.Duringharvest,coconutbunchesshould beloweredgentlytothegroundusingarope(Plate38). Plate38.Harvestingcoconutforwaterbygentlyloweringbunchtogroundusingarope(Photo credits:Gogo159,2016;Itslife,2016) 44 Harvestedcoconutsshouldneverbeallowedtocomeintocontactwithextraneousmattersuch as soil and chemical fertilizers, since if not properly washed off, these extraneous materials increase the risk of chemical and microbiological contamination during coconut water collection. Extreme care must be taken to avoid cracking during handling, loading/unloading andtransportationsincecoconutsarehighlysusceptibletomechanicaldamage. Theharvestedbunchesofnutsmustbeloadedinamannerwhichpreventsthemfromrolling about and hence cracking during transportation. They must be handled (never dropped) with careduringunloadinginordertopreventcracking.Fromeachhectare,yieldcanbeasmuchas 15,000nuts;consequently,areliablemeansoftransportationofthenutsisrequired,suchasa tractor-drawn trailer. A good road or waterway network is needed in order to collect nuts infield. Harvested nuts are best stored in a clean, well-ventilated area, off the ground (on a rack)andawayfromdirectsunlight. Itisdesirabletokeeparecordofthenutsharvestedperplot.Theyielddatacanbecorrelated with factors such as leaf analyses and fertiliser inputs. It can also assist in making important managementdecisionstoimproveyieldandproductivityofthecrop(DeTaffin,1998). Harvestingcoconutsforseed(TNAU,2012) Coconuts take about 12 months after pollination to fully ripen to the dry nut stage. Twelve montholdnutscanbeharvestedforseed.InthecaseofTallvarieties,suchnutscanbestored for2-3monthsbeforesowing,whereasinthecaseofDwarfsandhybrids,nutsshouldbesown withinaperiodof10–15daysofharvest. InmanyCaribbeancountries,thedominantcoconutvarietiesarederivativesofthePacificTall orAtlanticTall.Mostofthesetreesareover60–80yearsoldandmorethan30mtallthereby presentingaproblemforpickingofthematurenuts.Consequently,drynutsareallowedtofall and then collected from the ground beneath the trees. The best nuts are then selected as seednuts. Harvestingcoconutsforcopraorwetprocessingofhardendosperm(TNAU,2012) At the 12 - 13 month stage, the water (liquid endosperm) converts to the white meat (solid endosperm)liningtheinsideoftheendocarp(shell).Meatharvestedatthisstageisoftendried toproducecopraorwetprocessedtoextractcoconutoil(Plate39).Inpractice,theharvesting cycle varies from 45 - 60 or 90-day periods with high copra and oil recovery. Harvesting too earlycanunfavourablyaffectthequalityofthecopraintermsofoilcontent.Asmentionedin theprevioussection,inmanycases,drynutsareallowedtofree-fallandthencollectedfrom thegroundbeneaththetreespriortotheirprocessing. 45 Plate39.Processingofdriedcoconutkernel(copra)andfromfreshkernelto produceoil(Photocredits:EatingAsia,2008;Venture,2011; Veganbaking.net,2016). Nutsharvestedforcoprashouldyieldupto180gcoprapernut.Followingtheharvest,thenuts shouldbestoredasdescribedinSection1.8Plate18. Theharvestingprocess(TNAU,2012) Therearetwocommonmethodsofharvestingcoconuts.Thesearethepoleandtheclimbing methods (Plate 40). Although both the pole and the climbing methods of harvesting require considerable experience and skill to be performed safely and efficiently, each has its own advantagesanddisadvantages. Harvesting using bamboo poles is generally faster and less dangerous when compared with climbing.Withbamboopoles,aharvestercouldalsoharvestmorenutsperunitoftimefrom moretrees(upto100treesaday).However,oneshouldavoidcuttingthefrondtoharvestthe bunchsincethefrondisstillfunctional(DeTaffin,1998).Also,poleharvestingcausesthenuts tofalltothegroundandbedamagedandcanbeaverytediousprocessespeciallyfortalltrees. Ontheotherhand,theadvantageofharvestingbyclimbingisthattheclimber/harvestercould clean(removalofdryleaves,sheathsandspathes)andinspectthecrownofthepalmforpest anddiseaseattack.However,thecutsmadetoconstructstepsinthetrunkincertaincountries to facilitate climbing make the trees less suitable for timber purposes and fractures serve as entrypointsforpests. 46 A palm-climbing machine (Plate 40) is useful and advantageous for harvesting operations in placeswheretraditionalpalmclimbersarenotavailableandtreesareverytall.Thedeviceis more efficient than manual climbing. With its use, around 80 trees are harvested each day. Thereisalsolessriskoftheclimberfallingfromthetree. Plate40.Climbersusingfootrope,poleandclimbingmachine(Photocredits:GoaChitra,2009; Dept.ofAgriculture,2013;OneStopofX,2014;Indiamart,2016b;PeasantAutonomy,2016). 3.7Varietalconservationprogramme Farm productivity and competitiveness of coconut plantations/estates can be increased by developing and or introducing improved varieties that possess the capacity for high productivity. Other benefits include resistance/tolerance to pathogens and adaptation to the various environmental growing conditions. The importance of conserving coconut genetic resources for breeding programmes cannot be overemphasised. A conservation programme shouldaimforagermplasmcollectiontobeformedwhichcontainsthehighestpossiblelevelof genetic variability present across the genepool. Maximum use of this germplasm and genetic diversityshouldbemadeinplantbreedingforhigheryields,multipleusesandpestanddisease resistance. Consequently, germplasm collections are required for all coconut producing countriesbecauseofthehighrateofgeneticerosion(Santosetal.,1996). In the Caribbean, market forces are rapidly moving farmers to plant early-bearing Dwarf varieties for coconut water production instead of the Tall varieties that take much longer to 47 bear fruit and present difficulties for harvesting. Only in some countries such as Jamaica and Belize are efforts being made to conserve Tall varieties and to use these in hybridisation programmes for the production of hybrids useful for the production of both water, oil and otherproducts. 48 Chapter4-IntegratedPestManagement (Mainreferences:Manoharan,2012;Satayagopaletal.,2014;TNAU,2014; UF/IFAS,2015b;KissanKerala,2016) 4.1Introduction Integrated pest management (IPM) is a holistic approach to crop protection based on the integration of multiple strategies, namely, cultural, physical, mechanical, biological and chemical. IPM programmes are often devised to keep the pest populations to a level that is lowerthantheeconomicalthresholdlevels.ModernIPMincorporatesagro-ecosystemanalysis, ecological engineering, pesticide application techniques, plant health at different stages, pest and defender population dynamics, soil conditions, climatic factors and utilisation of farmers’ past experience (FAO, 2013). Farmers are encouraged to make decisions based on their collectiveobservationsandtosharetheirknowledgewitheachother. The reliance of pesticides in farming is a major cause of widespread ecological imbalance resulting in pesticide residue contamination, insect resistance and pest resurgence. There is rising public concern about potential adverse effects of pesticides on human health, environment and biodiversity. These effects can be minimised through the development, dissemination and promotion of sustainable bio intensive approaches. This approach will enablefarmerstotakeinformeddecisionsandwillalsoresultinuseofchemicalpesticidesonly asalastresortandinasafeandjudiciousmanner. Resistance to pesticides occurs when there is a heritable change in the sensitivity of a pest populationthatisreflectedintherepeatedfailureofaproducttoachievetheexpectedlevelof control when used according to the label recommendation for that pest species. The causes and rate at which pesticide resistance develops depend on several factors, including how rapidlythepestreproduces,thepest’slevelofresistance,themigrationandhostrangeofthe pest,thepest’spersistenceandspecificity,andtherate,timingandnumberofapplicationsof pesticide made. For instance, insect pests that survive in large populations and breed quickly areatgreateradvantageofdevelopingresistanceespeciallywheninsecticidesaremisusedor over-used. 4.2 IPMstrategiestoavoidpesticideresistance ThefollowingIPMstrategiesarerecommendedtoavoidpesticideresistance: 1. Monitoring Pestpopulationdevelopmentinthefieldshouldbemonitoredtodetermineifandwhen controlmeasuresarewarranted.Also,oneshouldmonitorandconsiderthenumberof natural enemies when making control decisions. After treatment, continue monitoring toassesspestpopulations.Pesticidesshouldbeusedonlyasalastresortwhenallother non-chemical management options are exhausted. Apply bio-pesticides or chemical 49 2. 3. 4. 5. insecticides judiciously when the pests are in most vulnerable life stage. One should adheretoapplicationratesandintervalsasperlabeldirections. Pesticideselection Pesticides should be selected with care and considerations should be made on the impactonfuturepestpopulationsandtheenvironment.Forexample,oneshouldavoid broad-spectruminsecticideswhenaspecificinsecticidewillwork.Preferenceshouldbe giventogreenlabelledinsecticides. Pesticideapplication Whileapplyingpesticides,extremecareshouldbetakenintheirapplicationintermsof dose,volume,timing,coverageandapplicationtechniquesasperlabeldirections. Pesticiderotation One should avoid the repeated use of the same pesticide, pesticides in the same chemical class, or pesticides in different classes with same mode of action and rotate/alternatepesticideclassesandmodesofaction. Maintenanceofconservationareas Careshouldbetakentopreservesusceptibleindividualswithinthetargetpopulationby leaving unsprayed areas within treated fields. These susceptible individuals may outcompete and interbreed with resistant individuals, diluting the resistant genes and thereforetheimpactofresistance. 4.3Surveillance As an IPM requirement, surveillance or plantation scouting on pest occurrence and other observationsattheplantationshouldcommencesoonafterplantestablishmentandbedone onaweeklybasis.Decisionsshouldbetakenbasedonanalysisofthefieldsituation,viz.,soil conditions, weather, disease type and severity, pest levels, damage severity and number of natural enemies. Farmers are encouraged to keep a record of their observations and data collected. Keeping records of what happened helps in making an analysis and drawing conclusions. Thefarmershouldbeabletoprovideanswerstothefollowingquestions: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Isthereachangeinthecropsituationcomparedtothelastsurveillance? Whatkindofchange? Isthereanyseriouspestordiseaseoutbreak? Aretherebeneficialinsects? Is there a balance in the field between pests and defenders (beneficial insects/predators)? 6. Wereallthepestanddiseasesidentifiable? 7. Isthecrophealthy? 50 8. Whatmanagementpracticesareneededatthismoment? 9. Whenwillitbedone? 10. Whowilldoit? 11. Whoisresponsibleforwhatactivity? 12. Whatcanbedonetoavoidtheproblemsobserved? Propersurveillancerequiresskillandknowledgeandthefarmerhastobeproperlytrainedto undertakethisexercise.Forexample,whenscoutingfordiseases,thefarmermustbeawareof problems caused by biotic factors such as fungal, bacterial and viral pathogens, or abiotic factorssuchasweather,nutrientdeficiencies,pesticidesandsoilproblems.Inmanycases,the causeofthesymptomisnotobvious.Laboratorycultureandanalysiswillthenberequiredfor properdiagnosisofthecausalagentofthedisease. 4.4 KeypestissuesfacingCaribbeancoconutpalms(Eden-Green,2013) •Thecriticalimportanceofredpalmmite,associatedwithproductionlossesof morethan75%inTrinidad,25-30%inGuyanaandclearlycausingwidespread damageinmanyothercountries. •Thecontinuingthreatoflethalyellowingdisease,eveninJamaicawhere “resistant”MalayanDwarfandMaypanvarietieshavesuccumbedinlargenumbers. •Theneedtobringredring,itsSouthAmericanpalmweevilvector,andotherstem- andflower-damaginginsectsundercontrol,especiallyforreplantingprogrammes. •Theimportanceofbudrotdiseaseinsomecountries,notablyDominicanRepublic. •Mostotherpestshavelimitedorsporadicdistributionbutcancauseseriouslocal losses. 4.5 IPMpracticesforcoconutatdifferentgrowthstages Pestsattackthecoconutplantatvariousstagesofgrowth.Fromthetimeofgermination andearlyseedlinggrowthinthenurseryandearlygrowthinthefield(refertoChapters2 and 3), the grower must be pro-active in the control of pests and diseases since they negativelyaffectlaterplantgrowthandyield. 4.5.1Nurserystage • • • • Elite mother palms should be selected to obtain seed nuts for high quality seedling production. One should avoid collecting immature nuts for use as seednuts and overcrowdinginstorage. SeednutsshouldbepreferablysowninMay-Junewiththecommencementoftherainy season.Irrigation,drainageandshadeshouldbeprovidedforbedsasrequired. Stringent selection of seedlings should be practised, by rogueing of undesirable seedlings. Goodculturalpracticessuchasirrigation,weedcontrol,mulchingandshadingshouldbe providedfornurserybeds. 51 • • Seednutsthathavenotgerminatedwithin5monthsmustberemovedfromthenursery bed. Weedingandirrigationshouldbeconductedonatimelybasis. 4.5.2Pre-plantingstage Thefollowingfactorsshouldbeconsideredatthepre-plantingstage: • Propersiteselection. • Adequatelandpreparationoperations. • Provisionofadrainagenetwork. • Provisionofaccessroads. • Constructionofpondsandirrigationsystems. • Preparationofcamberedbedsystemwheredrainageispoor. • Preparationofplantingholesusingrecommendedspecifications. • Plotsshouldbelined-upattherecommendedspacing. • Useoftheappropriatevarietyfortheintendedproductsuchaswateroroil. • Quality seedlings 8 – 9 months old should be planted in the field at the onset of the rainyseason,orwhenirrigationisavailable. • Therecommendedplantingtechniqueshouldbefollowed. • Fertilisersandmicronutrientsshouldbeusedaspersoiltestrecommendations. 4.5.3Earlygrowthstage Thefollowingarerecommendedpracticesattheearlygrowthstage: • Carry out irrigation using 45 litres of water per seedling once every 4 days during dry spells. For drip irrigation, 30 - 35 litres of water should be applied per palm per day. Irrigationshouldnotbeexcessive. • Weeklysurveillanceandassessmentsoftheestateshouldbeconductedanddecisions takenonmanagementpracticesbasedonobservationsofPest:Defender(P:D)ratio. • Affected portions of palms, buttons, wilted palms and dead palms should be cut and burnt. • Deadordamagedseedlingsshouldbepromptlyremoved. • Naturalenemiesmustbeconservedthroughjudicialuseofbio-rationalpesticides. 4.6 MajorArthropodpestsofcoconutintheCaribbeanregion 4.6.1Rhinocerosbeetle(Oryctesrhinoceros) Thisnocturnalpestisprevalentinnewly-clearedlandswhereitsfoodsourcewasdestroyedand replacedbycoconutseedlings.Thepopulationseemstobehigherintherainyseason. Identificationofthepest Theadultbeetleisstout,brownishblackorblackandhasalonghornwhichprojectsdorsally fromtheheadinmales(Plate41).Thefemalehasashorterhornandlays140–150eggswhich 52 areoval,creamywhiteandfoundinmanurepitsordecayingvegetablematteratadepthof5- 15cm.Theeggshatchintogrubs,whicharestout,sluggish,white“C”-shapedwithpalebrown heads.Thegrubsarefoundatadepthof5-30cminthesoilandpupateinearthencellsata depthof0.3-1m. Symptomsofdamage(Manoharan,2012) The adult beetle bores into unopened fronds, spathes and leaf midribs. The attacked fronds whenfullyopen,showcharacteristictriangularcuts(Plate41).Thebeetlesalsoboreintothe crowntofeed,therebydestroyingthemeristemandcausingplantdeath.Thecentralspindle appearscutortoppledandthereareholeswithchewedfibresstickingout. Plate41.Coconutrhinocerosbeetle(Oryctesrhinoceros)(Photocredits:AmericanPublic GardensAssociation,2012;TNAU,2014;FAO,2013;Hara,2014;StateofHawaii,2014;UF/IFAS, 2015b). Management i.Culturalcontrol: 53 • Cleancultivationispractisedbyremovalandburningofdeadplantpartsorwholedead plantssincelarvaeshelterinrottingwood. • Thevariouslifestagesofthebeetlemustbecollectedanddestroyedfromitsbreeding ground,forexample,incowdung. • Alldeadcoconutpalmsonthefarm(whicharelikelytoserveasbreedingsites)mustbe removedandburnttomaintaingoodsanitation. ii.Mechanicalcontrol: • Duringpeakperiodofpopulationbuildup,theadultbeetlemaybeextractedfromthe palmcrownusingGImetalhooks. iii.Chemicalcontrol: •Aggregationpheromonetrapsshouldbeinstalledintheperipheryoftheplantationata heightof0.6-1mtolure,captureandkillthebeetles. • As a prophylactic measure, 10.5 g Naphthalene balls (approx. three to four balls) are applied to the topmost three leaf axils, then covered with fine sand. This should be repeatedonceevery45days. • Manure pits and other possible breeding sites should be treated with 0.01% Carbaryl (50%WP)onawetweightbasis;thistreatmentshouldberepeatedevery3months. iv.Biologicalcontrol: • The Oryctes virus used as an inoculum at a rate of 6 beetles/acre can reduce the leaf andcrowndamagecausedbythebeetles. • Castorcakeshouldbesoaked(1kgin5litresofwater)insmallmudpotsandkeptin coconutcultivationstoattracttheadults,whicharethenkilled. 4.6.2Coconuteriophyidmite(AceriaguerreronisKeifer) Biology(Manoharan,2012;TNAU,2014) Eriophyidmitesaretranslucent,cigar-shapedmicroscopicmitesthatcausedeformitiesto coconutfruits.Theyarenoticedwhentheirfeedingcausesabnormalities. Themite(Plate42)isusuallyfoundunderthebractsoffertilisedfemaleflowersanddoesnot infesttheunfertilisedflowers.Thesemitesareveryminuteinsizemeasuring200–250micron inlengthand36–52microninwidthwithtwopairsoflegs.Thenymphandadultarepalein colourwithanelongatedbodyandworm-likeappearance.Thelifecycleofthismiteconsistsof theegg,twolarvalinstarsandanadultstageandiscompletedin7-10days.Themiteresides underthesepalsofdevelopingnutsupto6monthsandfeedsonthemesocarp. Symptomsofdamage § Triangularpaleoryellowpatchesclosetoperianth. § Necrotictissue. § Browncolourpatches,longitudinalfissuresandsplitsonthehusk. § Oozingofthegummyexudationfromtheaffectedsurface. § Reducedsizeandcopracontent. § Malformed,smallernutswithcracksandhardenedhusk. 54 Inseverecases,thenutsaremalformedwithcracksandhardenedhusk.Themitescausethe nutstobescarredbutthewaterqualityisunaffected.However,severely-scarredtendernuts maynotfindacceptancebyconsumers.Thesemitesdonotcauseanydamagetoleaftissueas withredpalmmites(RaoiellaindicaL.). Plate42.Coconuteriophyidmite(AceriaguerreronisKeifer)(Photocredits:TNAU, 2014;Infonet-Biovision,2016;KissanKerala,2016;Pestnet,2016) Management i.Culturalcontrol: § Allmatureandprematurely-fallennutsoftheaffectedpalmshouldbecollectedand destroyed. § Adequate irrigation and fertilisation based on soil test should be provided to increase tolerancetothefeedinganddamagebythemite. ii.Chemicalcontrol: § Borax (50 g) + gypsum (1.0 kg) + Manganese sulphate (0.5 kg) should be applied per palmannually. § Youngbunchesshouldbesprayedwith5%wettablesulphur. iii.Spotapplicationofecofriendlybotanicals: § Azadirachtin1%(5mlin1litreofwater)+Teepol(30mlin1litreofwater)shouldbe alternated and applied to the crown region by a climber, covering only the top six bunchesduringthedryseason. 55 4.6.3Redpalmmite(RaoiellaindicaHirst) The red palm mite (RPM) is the most important pest from an economic standpoint and is rampant in high populations in most Caribbean countries. It is an invasive alien species and enteredtheCaribbeanregionin2004.Themitesaredispersedbywindaswellasoninfested plantsorplantmaterial.DamagetococonutsfromRPMcanresultina70%yieldreductionand possibly to job losses leading to major socio-economic problems for some Caribbean islands (Sujatha, 2013). Although there is a good knowledge base in the region, there is a lack of farmer awareness. In Trinidad, augmentative biocontrol is under investigation but classical biological control agents may be needed and varietal tolerance needs to be assessed (EdenGreen,2013). The RPM can be identified by its bright red colour and all stages including the eggs are red (Plate 43). The adult females have black patches on their backs after feeding and grow to a length of 0.32 mm and a width of 0.22 mm. The RPM forms colonies on the undersides of leaves and causes damage by feeding through the stomata on the underside of the lamina damaging guard cells. Mites can be detected on infected plants by rubbing a finger on the undersideofleaves.Thisactiongivesareddish–browndiscolorationonthefingers.Population levelsoftheRPMincreaseduringthedryseasonwithlonghoursofsunshinewhilehighrainfall andrelativehumiditycontributetoreducedpopulations. HighRPMinfestationsleadtouncontrolledwaterlossintheplantthroughtranspiration.This leads to yellowing, necrosis and death of infested leaves (Plate 43). Severe RPM infestation leads to fruit drop, aborted inflorescences, loss of vitality and significant yield reduction (Sujatha,2013). Plate43.Redpalmmite(RaoiellaindicaHirst)(Photocredit:UF/IFAS,2012). 56 Integratedmanagementstrategyforsuppressionofredpalmmite There are no means presently available to efficiently manage RPM. Approaches to effectively manageincludeutilisationofgoodagriculturalpracticessuchasfertiliserapplication,irrigation andweedcontroltoreducecompetitionforwaterandnutrients.Treesthatareingoodhealth andreceivingadequatequantitiesofwaterandnutrientsaregenerallybetterabletoresistpest anddisease.Severelyinfestedleavesincludingdriedleavesshouldberemovedanddestroyed. Theuseofbio-rationals/eco-friendlyacaricidessuchasneem(Azadirachtaindica)formulations have assisted in reducing populations of RPM but is only practicable on seedlings and short trees(lessthan4mtall).BananaandplantainplantsarealternatehoststoRPM.Consequently, regulardetrashingofthesespecieswhenintercroppedwithcoconutisrequiredtoreduceRPM populations. Classical biological control studies are underway at the Central Experiment Station, Centeno, Ministry of Agriculture, Trinidad to collect, identify and multiply native biolological agents which are predatory species of mites such as the Phytoseiidae mite (Amblyseius largoensis), predatoryinsectssuchaslacewings(Chrysopidaesp.)andvariousbeetles(Sujatha,2013). 4.6.4 Redpalmweevil(RhynchophorusferrugineusOlivier) Theredpalmweevilisoneofthemostdestructivepestsofcoconut,oilpalmsandornamental palms. Identificationofthepest Eggsareovalandcreamywhiteincolourandarelaidinscoopedoutsmallcavities,woundsand othercutinjuriesinthetrunk.Thegrubislightyellowishwithoutlegs.Itisstoutandfleshywith aconicalbodybulgedinthemiddleandtaperingtowardstheend.Thefullgrownlarvapupates inside the stem and the cocoon is made out of fibrous strands. The adult weevil is reddish brownandhassixdarkspotsonthethorax.Themalehasaconspicuouslongsnoutwithatuft ofhair(Plate44). 57 Plate44.Theredpalmweevil(RhynchophorusferrugineusOlivier)(Photocredits:Pigletin Portugal,2011;TNAU,2014;ValenciaInternational,2014; JardinesyServices Aguber,2016) Symptomsofdamage § Holescanbeseenonthestem(Plate44)withchewedupfibresprotrudingoutwards. § Reddishbrownliquidcanbeseenoozingoutfromthehole. § Thegrubscausedamageinsidethestemorcrownbyfeedingonsofttissueandoften cause severe damage especially when a large number of them bore into the soft, growing parts. In case of severe infestations, the inside portion of the trunk is completelyeatenandbecomefullofrottingfibres. § Inthecaseofyoungpalms,thetopwitherswhileinolderpalmsthetopportionofthe trunkbendsandultimatelybreaksatthebend. § Sometimesthegnawingsoundproducedbythefeedinggrubsinsideisaudible. § Intheadvancedstageofinfestation,yellowingoftheinnerwhorlofleavesoccur.The crownfallsdownordryuplaterwhenthepalmisdead(Plate44). Management i.Culturalcontrol: • All wilting or damaged palms in coconut plantations should be removed and burnt to destroynestingsitesofthepest. 58 Cuttingofgreencoconutleavesshouldbeavoided;ifneeded,theyshouldbecutabout 120 cm away from the stem in order to prevent successful inward movement of the grubsthroughthecutend. • Properspacingofplantsisrequiredandover-crowdinginbudrotpronelocalitiesshould beavoided. ii.Trapmethod: Step1:Specialisedbucketswith3-4holesaremadeandthebucketsarewrappedwith coconut fibre/jute sack, so that the pests can easily enter. Step2:Thelure(Ferrolure+)issuspendedinsidethebucketand1litreofwateris added along with 100 g pineapple/sugarcane, 2 g yeast and 2 g Carbaryl. Step 3: The bait buckets are placed at sites where infestation is most observed. Step4:Afteraweek,thewaterischeckedforthecatchandrefilledtoprevent mosquitoesfrombreeding. iii.Chemicalcontrol: • § § § § Where the presence of the red palm weevils are observed, the bore holes are sealed except the topmost one. Then 1% Carbaryl (20 gm/l) or 0.2% trichlorphon or 0.1% endosulfan suspension at a rate of 1 litre per palm is poured into the hole, using a funnel.Theholeispluggedandtheprocessisrepeatedafter1week. When the pest infestation is through the crown, the crown is cleaned and the insecticidalsuspensionisslowlypouredinthecrown. Whereentryoftheweevilisthroughthetrunk,theholeintrunkmaybepluggedwith cementortar. Thecrownandtheaxilsoftheuppermostthreeleavesarefilledwitha2:1mixtureof finesandandneemseedpowderorneemseedkernelpowderonceevery3monthsto preventtheredpalmweevilfromlayingeggsinthearea. 4.6.5 Leaf-eatingorblack-headedcaterpillar(Opisinaarenosella) Thiscaterpillarcausesseveredamagetopalmsbutitsappearanceissporadicandnot widespreadintheCaribbean. Identificationofthepest Thecaterpillarorlarvaisgreenishbrownwithadarkbrownheadandprothorax,areddish mesothoraxandbrownstripesonthebody(Plate45).Thenthepupapupatesinathinsilken cocoon.Themothisgreyishwhiteincolourandthefemalehaslongantennaandthreefaint spotsontheforewings.Themalehasfringedhairsonitshindwingsandapicalandanal margins. Symptomsofdamage Coconuttreesofallagesareattackedleavingdrieduppatchesonleafletsofthelowerleaves alongwithsilkandfrass(Plate45).Onlythe3-4youngestleavesatthecentreofthecrown 59 remaingreen.Incaseofasevereinfestation,thewholeplantationhasascorchedappearance (Plate45). Plate45.Leaf-eatingorblack-headedcaterpillar(Opisinaarenosella)(Photocredits:Deejay Farms,2015;TNAU,2014;Rotor,2014;AmpolfoodGroup,2016) Management i.Culturalcontrol: Asaprophylacticmeasure,thefirstaffectedleavesshouldbecutandburnt. ii.Chemicalcontrol: When infestation is very severe in young palms and if biocontrol is not likely to be effective, theundersurfaceofthefrondsshouldbesprayedwithdichlorvos0.02%(Dichlorovos100EC) which can be alternated with malathion 50 EC 0.05% (1 ml/l), quinalphos 0.05%, endosulfan 0.05%orphosalone0.05%. iii.Steminjection Aslantingholeshouldbedrilled1mabovegroundleveland10mlofMonocrotophos36WSC appliedwithasyringeandneedletothehole.Aftertheinsecticidehasbeenabsorbed,thehole shouldbepluggedwithclaymixedwithcopperoxychloride. 60 4.6.6 Scaleinsect(AspidiotusdestructorSignoret) Symptomsofdamage Scaleinsectsaremoreabundantinthedryseasonandtheyaffectleavesandnutsofcoconut palms.Insevereinfestations,scaleformsacontinuouscrustoverflowerspikes,youngnutsand thelowersurfaceoftheleaves. Plate46.Scaleinsect(AspidiotusdestructorSignoret)infestationoncoconutfruit(Photo credits:TNAU,2014;CopracoProducts,2014;SanPedro,2014;Aguirreand Opiniano,2016). On leaves, scales with yellow spots develop where the crawlers have settled and grown into adults. Entire leaves may turn yellow to brown and fall. Sooty mould may also develop. The bright yellow colour of affected coconut palms is clearly visible from a great distance. In extremecases,theleavesdryout,entirefrondsdropoffandthecrowndies.Heavyinfestation results in stunting of new leaves, reduction of crop yield or complete crop failure. Infested coconut fronds exhibit yellow areas on the upper surface, formed by numerous yellow spots eachmarkingthepositionofthecoconutscaleontheundersurface(Plate46). Pestidentification Eggslaidontheundersidesofleaves,hatchintonymphswhicharecoveredwithcircularwaxy secretions(Plate46).Theadultscaleisbrightyellowandroundorreddish(female)andthe malesareoval.Femalesarealwayswinglessandremainundertheirscaletheirentirelife.Adult maleshaveonepairofmembranouswingsandmoveaboutactivelyinsearchoffemalesand 61 donotfeedduringtheadultstage. Management Chemicalcontrol: 1. Spray applications of Fish Oil Rosin Soap (FORS) 2.5%, Fenthion or Malathiomade are recommended.Asecondapplicationshouldbemadeafter20days. 2. Afterharvestingthenuts,Monocrotophos36WSCatarateof2ml/haisapplied.Nuts mustnotbeharvestedfor45daysafterspraying. 4.6.7.Coconutmealybug(NipaecoccusnipaeMaskell) Plate47.Mealybugs(NipaecoccusnipaeMaskell)oncoconutleavesandfruit(Photo credits:USDA–UF,2013;TNAU,2014;Alfaimg,2016;FlickrHiveMind,2016). Symptoms Flattenedovaltorounddisc-likeinsectcoveredinwaxysubstanceonpalmfronds;insectcolony may be associated with growth of sooty mold due to fungal colonization of sugary honeydew excreted by the insect. Severely infested plants may wilt due to sap depletion; leaves turn yellow,graduallydryandultimatelyfalloff.Feedingonnutsresultsindiscoloured,bumpy,and scarrednuts,withlowmarketvalue. 62 Management Mealybugs can potentially be controlled by natural enemies such as lady beetles but are commonly controlled using chemicals. However, chemical pesticides may also decrease populationsofnaturalenemiesleadingtomealybugoutbreaks. 4.7CoconutdiseasesofregionalsignificanceintheCaribbean 4.7.1Redringdisease OneofthemostimportantdiseasespresentlyaffectingthecoconutindustryintheCaribbean region is red ring disease (RRD). This disease causes significant losses in Trinidad, Guyana, Suriname, and Belize. RRD is a major threat to replanting where infestations are left uncontrolled and traditional phytosanitary practices are no longer carried out (Eden-Green, 2013). Thisfataldiseaseranksamongtheprincipallong-termproblemsofthecoconutindustry.Itwas firstreportedasoccurringinTrinidadbyHartin1905(Griffith,1987).Therehasbeennorecord of recovery in palms once affected. It is caused by a nematode, Bursaphelenchus cocophilus Cobb. which is transmitted by the South American palm weevil Rhynchophorus palmarum L. (Plate48).Thevectorisalsoapestandfeedsontheapicalmeristematthecrownandresultsin stuntedgrowthoffronds;this“witchesbroomeffect”iscalledLittleLeafSyndrome(Plate49). Theweevilredringcomplexisdescribedbelow. Theredringnematodeistransmittedduringweevilfeedingandoviposition.Theheaviestlosses duetoRRDoccurattheendofthewetseasonandthefirst2-3monthsofthedryseasoni.e. betweenDecemberandMarchinTrinidad.Thisdiseaseoccursmostcommonlyintrees2½-10 years old, with greatest incidence in trees 4 - 7 years old. Replanting efforts are seriously affectedbyRRD(Ramkhelawan,2013). 63 Plate48.SouthAmericancoconutpalmweevil(RhynchophoruspalmarumL.) (PlateredrawnfromBrammerandCrow,2001). Theweevil(Plate49)isablackinsectandmeasures4–5cminlength,1.4cmwideandweighs 1.6 – 2.0 g. The male has a characteristic patch of stiff hair on the top of the rostrum. The female has a long, ventrally curved rostrum which is used to pierce palm tissue and create accesswoundsinwhicheggsaredeposited.Asmanyas700eggscanbedepositedincracksor wounds in the bark and on hatching, the larva (Plate 49) tunnels through the tissues during feeding.Thelifecyclefromeggtoemergenceofadultis77–80daysandtheadultweevillives forabout48days.Thenematodesareinjectedintothesofttissuesofthecoconuttreewhen theweevillayseggsintheleafaxiland/orcrownofthepalm.Thenematodesrapidlymultiply andabout66,000nematodescanbefoundpermetreofstem.Manyoftheconductingvessel elementsinthetreebecomeblockedandtheuptakeofwaterandnutrientsisreduced. ThemainsymptomofRRDisaprogressiveyellowingandbrowningofthefronds,startingfrom thelowestleafandprogressingtotheyoungestleafatthetopofthetree(Plate49).Theyellow discoloration usually starts from the tip of the leaflets. Nuts at all stages of development are shed prematurely with the development of leaf symptoms. There is necrosis in the flowers, tunnelsinthestemmadebytheweevillarvaeandtheaffectedplanttissuerots,producinga characteristicfoulodour.Theringofdarklycolourednecrotictissueobservedinthecutcrosssectionsofstemsofpalms(Plate48)hasgiventheafflictionthenameredringdisease. SymptomsoffrondyellowingcausedbyRRDarenotevidentuntil2-3monthsafterinfection. The crown of the tree then topples over about 4 - 6 weeks after the symptoms first appear 64 givingtheheadlessstematelephonepoleappearance(Plate49).Thisoccursduetothesevere feeding damage caused by the palm weevil larvae. Adult weevils emerge from exit holes in diseasedtreesandcancarrynematodestoothertrees. ManycoconuttreeswhichshowyellowingandbrowningofleavesmaynotbeduetoRRD.This may be attributed to other problems such as potassium deficiency, severe drought, waterlogged conditions, red palm mite infestation and coconut lethal yellowing disease. To ascertainthepresenceofRRD,a5mmlengthofpipecanbedrivenintotheleafaxilofthetree up to a depth of 7.5 cm. The pipe is then removed and if the plug of tissue has a reddish or brownish discoloration about 4 cm from the surface, then the disease is RRD. If the tissue is entirely white, then the tree does not have RRD. The artificial hole should be plugged with a wooden dowel and sealed with a wound protectant containing bitumen. The weevil is only noticedwhenthediseaseisinanadvancedstage;bythistime,thedamageisirreparableand thetreedies. Management SinceRRDcanbespreadviathevector(fromonepalmtoanother),thereisneedforagood publicawarenessprogrammeregardingitsmanagement.Themosteffectivestrategytolower the incidence of RRD is the rapid elimination of nematode infected palms coupled with a reductionoftheweevilpopulationthroughtheeliminationofbreedingsitesandthetrapping of adult weevils. Diseased palms can be killed by augering 3 holes about 10 cm deep with a 12.5mmdiameteraugeraroundthetreetrunk.Theholesshouldbemadeslantingdownatan angleofabout45°andatalevel15cmabovethesoilsurface.Then,anarboricideortreekiller (containing the active ingredients ammonium sulphamate and synthetic plant-growth regulatorsbasedonphenoxyaceticacid)shouldbeappliedtoeachholeattherecommended rate.Thiswillkillthetreewithin7-10days.IfthetreeisinanadvancedstageofRRD,such treesshouldbecutdown.Allpartsofthetree,includingpiecesoftissueandthestumpshould be sprayed with a biological insecticide such as Neemex to deter palm weevils from feeding there.After14days,thedried-outremainscanbeburntorcomposted;thiswilldestroylarvae andpupaewhichareinsidethetrunk. Ramkhelawan (2013) in field trials at the Centeno Research Station in Trinidad, found that mixingonetablespoonCarbaryl80(3%a.i.)withcoconutcoir,andplacementintheleafaxils, atfourorfivelocationsandalsointheupperpartofthecrown,killedalightingweevils. 65 Plate49.Thecoconutweevil,Rhynchophoruspalmarum,anditsassociationwiththeredring nematode,Bursaphelenchuscocophilus.(Photocredits:BrammerandCrow,2001;Caspercorp, 2011;Dilbar,2013;Wikipedia,2014;AnaamayaOrganicClub,2015). Chemicalcontroloftheweevilalonewillnotbesuccessfulsincethelarvaespendtheirentire lifeinsidethetrunk.AnIPMprogrammeshouldbecarriedoutandthisinvolvesthefollowing: • • • • Earlydetection,destructionandremovalofinfestedpalms. Diseasedpalmsshouldbecutdownthenchoppedintosmallpiecesandsprayedwithan insecticide,e.g.Cabaryl,tokillthelarvaeoftheweevil.Treesshouldthenberemoved and burnt to kill any remaining larvae or young weevils as well as nematodes in the planttissues. Theweevilpopulationcanbereducedbythecaptureofadultswithtrapsbaitedwith rotted plant materials, such as palm tissue, pineapple and sugarcane treated with an insecticide and synthetic aggregation pheromones (Rhynchophorol). Sugarcane and pineapple attractants should be replaced after 2 weeks; after this the bait should be safelydisposedofandreplaced.Thepheromonecanattractweevilswithinaradiusof1 km and its efficacy lasts for 4 weeks, after which it is replaced. These traps are more effective in the dry season where the weevils are most active in the cooler night temperatures.Trappingshouldcontinueyear-roundtoreducethepopulationofweevils tothebarestminimum. Certainchemicalsfoundinredringdiseasedpalmsandthosethatarewounded,attract the palm weevil. Therefore, one should avoid unnecessary pruning of fronds and wounding of the tree during nut harvesting and cultural practices since the exposed tissuescommonlyattractthevector. 66 • Thereisaneedforarea-widecontrolmeasuresbackedbyresearchonalternativesto obsoleteinsecticidesandsemiochemicals(theseincludepheromones).Also,biocontrol methodsareurgentlyneeded(Eden-Green,2013). 4.7.2 Budrot(Heartrot) Bud rot is a fatal disease of coconut palms caused by the fungus-like organism Phytophthora palmivoraButler,whichdestroystheterminalbudandadjacentleavesandeventuallykillsthe palm.Itcanresultinheavyeconomiclossestofarmersiftheproblembecomeswidespread.It occursthroughouttheCaribbeanregion,butisusuallysporadicandcanbedifficulttodiagnose (Eden-Green, 2013). Outbreaks in the Dominican Republic are thought to be associated with introductionofhybridsfromWestAfrica. Diseasesymptoms Coconut palms of all ages are liable to be attacked particularly during the rainy season when therelativehumidityisveryhigh.Inseedlings,thespearleafbecomeschlorotic,rapidlyturns necrotic (black spots appear on spindle leaves and basal tissues), rots rapidly and comes off withagentlepull. Infectionspreadstotheolderleaves,causingsunkenleafspotscoveringtheentireleafblade. Spot margins are irregular and water-soaked, and when the leaves are unfolded the characteristicirregularspotsareconspicuousontheblade.Infectedinflorescencesabortnuts. Inthelaterstages,thespindlewithersanddropsdown(Plate50).Thetenderleafbaseandsoft tissuesofthecrownrotintoaslimymassofdecayedmaterialemittingafoulsmell.Ultimately, theentirecrownfallsdownandthepalmdies(Plate50). 67 Plate50.Budrotincoconut(Photocredits:Prabu,2007;TNAU,2014;ProMED-mail,2014). Management Controlofthediseaseisreliantongoodsanitationpracticesandtheuseofappropriatesystemic fungicides.Thefollowingintegratedmanagementstrategiesarerecommendedforthecontrol ofbudrotdisease(Nambiar,1999;GhoseandGopalakrishnan,2013;TNAU,2014): • Beforetheonsetoftherainyseason,alldeadanddiseasedpalmsshouldberemoved fromthefieldanddestroyed,includingtheinfectedcrownregion. • Thecrownshouldbecleaned. • Field hygiene should be maintained by controlling weeds, removing fallen coconut fronds,otherplantpartsandreducingexcessiveshadefromothertrees. • Drainageaswellasthecontrolofotherpestsanddiseasesarenecessary. • Irrigation should be applied to palms early in the day to allow surfaces to dry off as quicklyaspossible. • Fertiliser (organic and inorganic) should be applied in recommended quantities just beforetheonsetoftherainyseasontoboostthepalms’defences. • Surveillance to identify bud rot symptoms should be conducted early and curative treatment adopted in the initial stage of the disease. All infected tissues of the crown should be removed and Bordeaux paste applied on cut ends; a protective plastic coveringshouldbeprovideduntilnormalshootsemerge. • Bordeaux mixture (1%) should be sprayed on the crowns of neighboring palms as a prophylacticmeasureatthestartoftherainyseason(duringthemonthofMay).Ifthe diseaseoccursfrequently,thesamemixtureshouldbere-appliedinNovember. 68 • Asafurtherprophylactictreatment,Mancozebsolution(5gin300mlwaterperpalm) shouldbeappliedatbi-monthlyintervals.Alternatively,twoperforatedsachetseach containing5gMancozebcanbeplacedintheinnermostleafaxilsofeachpalm. These recommended management practices can provide effective control of bud rot and require active involvement and participation of farmers, cooperatives, self-help groups, extensionagenciesandhomegardeners. 4.7.3 Lethalyellowing Lethalyellowingisafataldiseasecausedbyaphytoplasmawhichisacellwall-lessbacterium foundonlyinthephloemofhostplants.ItisspreadbytheplanthopperMynduscrudusVan Duzee (oftheCixidaefamily),asitfeedsfrompalmtopalm.Confirmationoflethalyellowingis basedonamoleculardiagnosticassayusingpolymerasechainreaction(PCR). No single symptom is diagnostic of lethal yellowing. Rather, it is the appearance and chronological progression of symptoms that accurately identify the disease. The first obvious symptom on mature palms is a premature drop of most or all fruits. For coconut, the calyx (stem)endofthefruitwillusuallyhaveabrowntoblack,water-soakedappearance(Plate51). Plate-51.Lethalyellowingeffectsonfloweringandfruitingofcoconut (Photocredits:HarrisonandElliott,2008;Myrie,2013). Next, inflorescence necrosis (death) occurs. Normally light yellow to creamy white in colour, emergingflowerspikeletsareinsteadpartiallyortotallyblackened.Maleflowersabscisefrom 69 flowerspikeletsandthereisnofruit.Theentireflowerstalkturnsblack.Thelower,olderleaves turn yellow from the tip towards the trunk then they turn brown. For most Tall coconut cultivars, leaves turn a golden yellow before dying, while on Dwarf cultivars, leaves generally turn a reddish to grayish-brown. These leaves become dry, and later hang limply from the canopy before falling. Infected plants normally die within 3 - 6 months of infection leaving headlesstrunks(Plate52). Distribution LethalyellowinghasbeenfoundtobeverydestructiveinthenorthwesternCaribbean (Jamaica,Cuba,Haiti,Belize,CaymanIslands,Guatemala,Bahamas,Florida,Mexicoand Honduras).IthasrecentlyspreadtoStKitts-NevisandAntiguabutisnotyetwidespreadinthe DominicanRepublic(Eden-Green,2013). Plate52.Adultcoconuttreeskilledbylethalyellowingdisease (Photocredits:CIRAD,2009;Invasive.org,2010;Myrie,2013). Management Thereare no direct control methods,consequently, trees should be felledassoonas thefirst symptomsappear.Goodweedmanagementisessentialsincemanygrassesactashoststothe insectvector.Cultivarsthatarelesssusceptibletothedisease,suchasMalayanYellow,Green and Red Dwarfs, Panama Tall and Maypan (Panama Tall x Malayan Yellow Dwarf), should be used.However,thepreviouslyresistantMalayanDwarfandMaypanarenowbeingaffectedin Jamaica(Eden-Green,2013). 70 The Coconut Industry Board in Jamaica is breeding hybrids with better resistance but these require further testing and deployment. There is also the need to screen varieties for alternativesourcesofresistance.Itappearsthatthediseaseinlesssusceptiblevarietiescanbe managedbyrigorousphytosanitationandintensivecultivation(Eden-Green,2013).DeTaffin (1998)stressedthatstrictphytosanitaryquarantineproceduresshouldbeenforcedtoprevent themovementofcoconutseeds,seedlings,andmaturepalmsfromlethalyellowingepidemic areas. Antibioticinjectiontreatment[oxytetracyclineHCl(Terramycin)]every4monthsiseffectivebut not usually practical for largescale plantings. It should be noted that the Jamaica Tall coconut cultivar was nearly wiped out by lethal yellowing. The spread of the disease in Jamaica is depictedinPlate53. Plate53.LethalyellowingadvanceinJamaicasince1952(Diagramredrawnfrom Myrie,2013). 71 Chapter5-COCONUTINTERCROPPINGSYSTEMS 5.0Introduction Thepressureofincreasingpopulationinthehumidtropicshaspromptedacceleratedinterestin methods for increasing agricultural production and income from unit area of land. Intensification of cropping in areas planted with coconuts, in response to current market demandsisaverypromisingstepinthisdirection.Mono-croppingcoconutsprovidesverylow incomes for farmers even at optimum planting density (Proud, 2005). Clearly, coconut monocropping has a very low utilisation efficiency of agricultural land and even with varietal improvementislikelytoremainso(Magat,1990). Thereisalargeareaoflandbeneaththecanopyofcoconutplantationsavailableforthefarmer to use (Figure 2). Diversifying the farming system by intercropping i.e. crops grown within establishedcoconutstands(Reynolds,1988),canimprovetheproductivityoflandandlabour and provide the grower with an income until the plantation becomes productive (Oommen, 2001). Intercropping takes advantage of the nature of the coconut tree’s canopy of fronds, and its rooting system. On average, 56% of solar radiation reaches the ground, although this varies withtheageofthecoconutstand,itsplantingdensity,anditsalignment.Arectangularsystem, alignedinanE-Wdirection,allowsmoresunlighttoreachthealleysbetweentherowsoftrees. Over80%oftheactiverootsoccurinthe25–60cmsoillayerina2mradiusaroundthepalm, leaving70-75%ofthesoilavailableforusebyothercrops(Proud,2005). Intercroppingwithperennial,short-term,orcovercropsrarelyaffectstheyieldorgrowthofthe coconut crop adversely. Practices such as weeding and fertilising the intercrops may also increase coconut yields. With widely spaced coconuts, i.e. above 7.6 m, intercropping is possibleirrespectiveoftheageofthepalms.However,closelyspacedpalms,aged8-25years, aregenerallynotsuitableforinter-andmixedcropping.Matureplantationsover25yearsold allow sufficient light to enter the understorey making conditions suitable for underplanting (Proud,2005). 72 Figure2.Areaoflandbeneaththecanopyofcoconutplantationsavailableforintercropping (RedrawnfromReynolds,1995c). The coconut intercropping system is based on the premise that the intercrop is beneficial to coconut production and productivity and that the income and efficiency of resource use including labour, land and input supplies from the integrated system is greater (Reynolds, 1988).Coconutfarmerscanincreasetheirprofitabilitywhilereducingfinancialrisksbyadopting anintegratedfarmingsystemthatincludesanimalsorintercrops.Theconstraintsandproblems initspatharemany,butthepotentialisgreatindeed.Thisisachallengetobothfarmersand scientists. 5.1Ecologicalconsiderationsforgrowthofcoconutandintercrops Several agro-climatic factors can affect productivity of the coconut palm and intercrops, namely, sunlight hours and intensity, soil types and their physical and chemical properties, altitude,rainfall,temperature,relativehumidityandwind(Darwis,1990;WaneyandTujuwale, 2002). These factors as they affect the growth of the coconut plant are discussed in detail in section3.1ofchapter3. 5.2Factorstoconsiderwhenintercropping Coconutfarmersmustensurethattheyknowwheretoselltheproductsoftheintercrop. When coconut plants are young, light penetration of the canopy is restricted (especially in dwarftypes)andintercropssuchascacaoandcoffeethattoleratemoreshadecanbechosen. As the palms grow taller and light penetration increases, other types of intercrops can be chosen. 73 The intercrops selected should not compete for sunlight, water and nutrients. In older plantationswheretreesaretallenoughtoallowmorelightpenetration, intercropsthatrequire less shading can be used. Irrigation and fertilisation of intercrops tend to favour the coconut componentandoftenincreaseitsyield.Theintercropcanstimulateincreasedmicrobialactivity of the rhizosphere and recycle crop biomass left in the field. Nitrogen-fixing and phosphate solubilizingbacterialactivitycanalsobebeneficial.Allthesefactorscancontributetoincreased coconutyields. However, some intercrops favour the build-up of pest and disease populations unfavorable to thecoconutplant.Bananaandplantainplantsaresecondaryhoststotheredpalmmitewhich can decrease coconut yields by as much as 70%. Plantain plants can also serve as secondary hosts to the palm weevil (Rhynchophorus palmarum L.) which transmits the nematode (Bursaphelenchus cocophilus Cobb) which causes red ring disease. Also, the injudicious use of insecticidescankillimportantcoconutpollinators. 5.3Plantingpatternanddensity Fieldspacingshouldbeinformedbyvariousfactorsincludingecologicalconditionssuchassoil fertility, slope, other enterprises within the field such as forage for livestock, mechanization, weed management, harvesting, crop protection practices, shade for livestock, choice of intercropsandplantingsystems.Itisthedensityofcoconutsperhectarethatdetermineshow much sunlight will get through to the understorey and influence what crops can be grown successfully. The arrangement of the components depends on the nature of the intercrop. Generally, a circular area of radius 2 m around the palm is left free of intercrops. These are grown in the interspaces according to the recommended planting system for the particular intercrop concerned. Over 80% of the active roots occur in the 25 – 60 cm soil layer in the 2 m radius aroundthepalm,leaving70-75%ofthesoilavailableforusebyothercrops.Onaverage,56% of solar radiation is available for intercrops, although this will vary with age of the coconut standandplantingdensity. Thecoconutpalmgrowssymmetricallyandmaximumlightavailabilityisobtainedbyplanting palm trees in an equilateral triangle (Plate 31 – Chapter 3), such that each row of trees is staggeredbyhalftheplantingdistanceinrelationtothetreesintherowsoneitherside.Each tree is thus equidistant from the six nearest trees. Trees are usually planted in rows running north to south. Other planting patterns and spacings (square and single hedge) for coconut varietiesunderfavourableagroecologicalconditionsareshowninPlate31–Chapter3. 5.4Intercroppingarrangementpatterns The arrangement of the components depends on the nature of the intercrop (Liyanage et al., 1986;AgFishTechPortal,2012).Generally,acircularareaofradius2maroundthepalmisleft freeofintercropsandtheintercropsaregrownintheinterspacesofcoconutrowsaccordingto 74 therecommendedplantingsystemforthesolecropoftheintercropconcerned.Theplanting systemsincludethefollowing: o Sequential cropping: two or more crops in single stand one after the other on the sameplotduringthesameyear(Figure3). o Simultaneous cropping: twoormoreintercropsgrownatsametime. o Row intercropping: simultaneous growing of two or more crop species in a welldefinedrowarrangement. o Stripintercropping:simultaneousgrowingoftwoormorecropspeciesinastripwide enoughtoallowindependentcultivation,butatthesametime,sufficientlynarrow toinducecropinteractions. o Relay intercropping: planting one or two crops within an established cropping pattern wherein the final stage of the first crop coincides with the initial developmentoftheothercrops. o Multistory cropping: for instance, coconut + black pepper + cacao + pineapple are plantedsothateachcropproducescanopiesatdifferentheights. Figure3.Intercroppingpineappleandbananawithcoconut. In Africa, Asia and the Pacific, where intercropping practices are common, various species of annualshavebeengrown,mostofwhichhavegivenupto60%increasesintheiryields,aswell asthatofcoconut,comparedtothesamegrownareaofmonocrops(Creencia,1978;Cuavas, 1975 and Opio, 1992). There are many common annuals and perennials recommended for coconut intercropping systems. Many are shade-loving (coffee, cocoa, papaya, pepper) or shade-tolerantoradaptedtopartialshade(avocado,citrus,soursop,pommecythere,WIcherry, carambola,mango).SomecropscommonlyintercroppedwithcoconutareindicatedinTable2. 75 Table2:Cropscommonlyintercroppedwithcoconut (AdaptedfromPlucknett,1979) Crop Scientificname 1.CEREALS Rice Oryzasativa Maize Zeamays 2.PULSES Mungbean Vigraradiata Pigeonpea Cajanuscajan Cornpea Vigraunguiculata Soyabean Glysinemax Groundnut Arachishypogiea 3.ROOTCROPS Cassava Manihotesculenta Sweetpotato Ipomoeabatatas Yam Dioscoreaspp Taro Colocasiaspp 4.SPICESandCONDIMENTS Ginger Zingiberofficinale Tumeric Curcumalonga Chillies Capsicumannuum 5.TREECROPS Cocoa Theobromacacao Coffee Coffeecanephora 6.OTHERCROPS Cotton Gossypiumspp Sugarcane Saccharumofficinarum 5.5ExamplesofIntercropping 5.5.1Coconut+cocoa Cocoacanbeintercroppedwithnewlyplantedcoconutbutshadeisrequired.Banana,plantain ordwarfcavendish(cookingbanana)canprovidetheshadeforthefirst3to4yearswhenthe cocoatreescommencebearing(Plate54).TheseshadeplantsbelongingtotheMusafamilywill also bring in a source of income every 12 months or there about. Studies have shown that intercroppingcoconutwithcocoaimprovedcoconutyields(Devanathan,2013;FAO,2013). Cocoaisaself-mulchingcropandhaslargeleaveswhichitshedsperiodically,providinggood mulching material, conserving moisture, increasing soil organic matter and stimulating microbial activity, such as nitrogen-fixing and phosphate-solubilizing processes in the rhizosphere. Along the row, one cocoa plant can be accommodated between two coconut 76 plants leaving a space of at least 2 m from each coconut plant. Separate fertilization of the coconuts,cocoaandshadeplantsisrecommended. Plate54.Coconut+cocoacroppingmodel[squareplanting(left)andtriangularplanting system(right)](DiagramsredrawnfromMagatandSecretaria,2007). 5.5.2Coconut+corn Thecoconutandcornareplantedatthesametimewiththecornrowsatleast2mawayfrom thebaseofthecoconuttreesand6-9rowsofcorncanbeaccommodatedbetweenthe coconutrows(Figure4). Figure4.Coconut+cornintercroppingmodel. 77 Papayacanalsobeintercroppedwithcoconutinthesamearrangement.Tworowsofpapaya canbeaccommodatedwhenspaced3mx3mbetweenthecoconutrows(Plate55) Plate55.Coconut+papayaintercroppingsystem. 5.5.3.Coconut+banana+plantain Bananaandplantaincanbeintercroppedwithcoconut(Plate56)assoonasthecoconutis plantedandcanberatooneduptothe4thyear,andspaced2.5mapart,alongtherows. Plate56.Mixedcroppingmodel(Coconut+banana+plantainintercropping)inJamaica. 78 5.5.4Coconutmultistorycropping(coconut+papaya+pineapple+peanut) The basic principle related to multistorey cropping systems (Figure 5 and Plate 57) is crop compatibility, combining different crop heights and rooting systems. In this system, land is preparedforpineappleplanting(45cmx45cm)alongrowsofcoconut.Papayaseedlingsare nextplantedat3mx3mwithonerowinbetweenrowsofcoconuts.Duringthefirstyear,the annual legume peanut may be planted between rows of papaya (6 rows of peanut at 50 cm apart).Papayaisharvestedayearafter,untilthethirdyear.Inthesecondyear,pineapplecan be harvested and allowed to ratoon until the third year. Coconut harvesting for fresh nuts is done7monthsafterfloweringandfordrynuts12monthsafterflowering. Figure5.Mixedcroppingmodel 79 Plate57.YoungAtlanticTallcoconutvarietyintercroppedwithcitrus,papayaand ColumbiancedarinTrinidad. 5.5.5Coconut+rootcrop Rootcropssuchascassava,sweetpotato,ginger,eddoanddasheen(Figure6)canbeplanted simultaneously with coconut. They are especially compatible as coconut intercrops in view of their shade tolerant nature. Recommended spacing is 0.75 m – 1 m rows depending on the choiceofintercrop,withatleast2mofspacefromthecoconutrow.Theinterrowspacingfor the intercrop varies from 0.25 m - 0.75 m. These intercrops require adequate fertilizing to compensatefortheirhighlevelofsoilnutrientremoval. Figure6.Coconut+rootcropintercroppingmodel. 80 5.5.6Coconut+coffee Coffeeisplanted2mawayfromthecoconuttrees(Figure7)whicharespaced8mx10mina squareplantingpattern.Coffeeplantscanbespaced2mapartwithplants1.5mapartwithin the row. Initially, coffee requires shade to become established. As with cocoa, shade can be provided by banana, plantain and cavendish species for approximately 4 - 5 years until the coffeeplantscomeintobearing. Figure7.Coconut+coffeeintercroppingsystem. 5.6 DisadvantagesofIntercropping Thedisadvantagesofintercroppingwithcoconutincludethefollowing: i. ii. iii. iv. v. vi. vii. viii. Competitionbetweenintercropsandcoconut,forwaterandplantnutrients. Intercrops may be uneconomical (losses to farmer) when planted where light is insufficientbecausecoconuttreesaretooclosetogether. Intercropsmayharbourdiseasesorattractpestsharmfultococonuts. Raisingmorethanonecroponthesamelandareacouldincreasetheneedforfertiliser andagrochemicalswhichmaynotbeavailable. Initially, as palms are shallow-rooted, tillage and cultivation operations required for intercropsmaycauserootdamagetothemaincropreducingyields. The growth habit of some intercrops may cause difficulty in certain coconut managementoperations(e.g.fertilizerapplication,harvesting). Intercroppingmaydemandahigherlevelofskillfromthefarmer. Undersmallholderproductionsystems,thesupplyoffamilylabourisoftenlimitedand greatpressurecanbeexertedonthehouseholdtoallocatelabourtotheproductionof food crops and other more profitable cash enterprises, at the expense of coconut production. 81 5.7 Advantagesofintercropping Theadvantagesofintercroppingwithcoconutinclude: i. ii. iii. iv. v. vi. vii. viii. Intercropping with perennials is popular on large-scale plantations. Perennials are particularlysuitedtointercroppingwithcoconutbecauseoncetheyreachmaturitythey continue to provide a steady flow of income with little maintenance requirement. An increased farm income is expected. Also, many bi-products from tree crop processing are readily available and potentially valuable for ruminant feeding and strategic supplementation. Increasedcoconutyieldsandfoodproductionandbetteruseofscarcelandresources. Increased stability for coconut farms through diversification and reduced dependence uponproductswithunstablemarketpricessuchas,copra,coconutoil,coirandotherbiproducts. Care and attention given to management of intercrop tillage, weed control, use of fertilizers,amongothers,mayleadtoimprovedgrowthandyieldsofcoconutpalmsand ease in finding the fallen nuts. Coconut yields may receive more of a boost resulting from clearing undergrowth from existing areas than by planting large areas of new trees. Dwarf palms require 7 - 8 years to produce economic yields. Using cash crops, intercroppedbetweentheyoungcoconuts,forfoodorsale,mayhelptooffsetthecost of coconut establishment and reduce the time to full bearing through improved palm growth. Theremaybebetterutilizationofunderemployedlabourthroughouttheyearandthe coconutfarmer'sskilllevelmayberaised. Using legumes as intercrops may lead to increased soil fertility. This can increase the productivelifeoftheplantation. Coconut canopies may result not only in lower air temperatures beneath the canopy, butalsoinlowersoiltemperatureswhichmaybeimportantforbetterseedlingsurvival, soil water relations, increased rate of litter breakdown and nitrogen mineralization. Also,airrelativehumiditywillbehigherandsoilwateravailabilityforintercropswillbe maintainedatahigherlevelthanintheopen,becauseoflessevaporationfromthesoil andlowercroptranspirationrates. 5.8Institutionalsupport This is required in areas of policy, credit, subsidies, incentives, industry strategy, land availability and tenure, farmer associations’ formation and strengthening, marketing and import/export facilitation for coconut and intercrop products, technical assistance, extension service and training. In the Caribbean, research and development thrusts are necessary for coconutintercropping,productstandards,foodsafetyand,environmentalimpact. 82 Ifproductionisincreasedbyadoptingsuccessfulintercroppingprogrammes,pricesatthelocal markets can drop and farmers may no longer be motivated to intercrop. Therefore, a wellorganizedsystemisnecessarytoensurecollectionandassemblageoftheproduceforthesmall farmers and its transportation to larger central markets. This is particularly important for perishable crops such as cassava, pineapple and cocoa. Coconut farmers must ensure they know where to sell the products of the intercrop for the most favourable price. The acceptabilityoftheintercroppingprogrammewilldependupontheincomegeneratedfromthe integrated intercropping system and the management inputs required. Careful analysis will havetobedoneoncomparativecoconutyields,constraints,benefitsandprofitmargins. 5.9 Concludingremarks The acceptability of any intercropping programme will depend upon the farmer’s own judgmentandevaluationofthepractice.Decisionswillhavetobetakenastowhethertherea needtoincreasecoconutplantspacing(adjustplantdensity)tobetteraccommodatecoconut intercropping systems in new plantations. The answer lies in the income generated from the integrated intercropping system and the management inputs required. Careful analysis will havetobedoneoncomparativecoconutyields,constraints,benefitsandprofitmargins.The logisticsofmultiplecroppinghavetoincludeschemestoensurethatthenecessaryinputsare availabletothefarmersintherightformandattherighttime.Farmersshouldhavethemeans topurchasetheseinputsandthereshouldbeareliableandapproachablemarketattheendof the season, at a price sufficient to ensure a reasonable profit and an adequate incentive to continue. 83 Chapter6–COCONUTANIMALPRODUCTIONSYSTEMS 6.0Introduction Thecoconut-animalproductionsystemisbasedonthepremisethattheanimalcomponentis beneficial to coconut production and productivity and that the income from the integrated system is greater (Reynolds, 1988). Coconut farmers can increase their profitability while reducing financial risks by adopting an integrated farming system that includes animals or intercrops. In coconut-animal production systems, the general rule is to plant the coconut component at the traditional spacing and adjust the animal stocking rate to the available understoreyspace.Theanimalcomponentisoftentreatedasanaid(especiallyinweedcontrol and the provision of additional income) to the coconut enterprise which takes priority (Reynolds,1988). Live weight gains of animals under coconut-animal production systems were found to be associatedwithanumberofmanagementandenvironmentalfactorssuchaslighttransmission, pasture species and forage quality, soil type, fertiliser use, animal size, stocking rate, supplementaryfeedand,grazingsystem.Otherfactorsincludecoconutvarieties,density,age and height. Coconut yields, on the other hand, depend on pasture species, fertiliser use, soil moisture, grazing system, stocking rate, nut collection system, height of forage, legume introduction,weedcontrol,cultivationmethodsandIPMpractices(Reynolds,1988). StudiesdoneinSriLankashowthattherearenoadverseeffectsonnutyieldbyintercropping coconutwithpastureprovidedbothcropsareadequatelyfertilisedandgrownunderadequate soil moisture conditions. There was also a long term beneficial effect on nut production by intercroppingwithcertainpasturespecies.Thesebeneficialeffectswerethoughttobedueto thepasture’simprovementofsoilstructure,betterrecyclingofnutrients,andimprovedwater percolation(Ferdinandez,1978). 6.1 Theanimalcomponent The various factors in a coconut-animal production system which influence coconut yields include: amount and intensity of light, pasture species, available soil nutrients and moisture, grazingsystem,stockingrate,nutcollectionsystem,heightofforage,legumecomponent,weed control, cultivation damage to coconut roots, animals causing soil compaction and producing toxic wastes in the manure; animal dung serving as a breeding ground for rhinoceros beetle and,thedegreeofcompetitionbetweentheforagespeciesandthecoconutplants(Reynolds, 1988). Grazingcattle(Plate58)andintercroppingundercoconutsisanoldsystempractisedinmany tropicalcountries(Plucknett,1979;EtheringtonandKarunanayake,1981).Lighttransmissionin the commonly used Tall coconut varieties decreases from over 90% in recently planted coconutstoaminimumofaround40%atanageof5-15years,andthenincreasesagainwith 84 time until the coconuts are due for replanting at age 50 - 60 years. Light transmission varies depending on variety (Dwarf or hybrid varieties intercept more light than Tall varieties), tree spacingandmanagement(Reynolds,1988). Asfarasanimalproductionisconcerned,theprovisionofshadeandthuslowerheatloadson animalsislikelytohaveapositiveeffectonanimalproductivity.Thenutritivequalityofforages growninpartiallyshadedenvironmentssuchasoldcoconutsiscomparabletothosegrownin fullsun(Nortonetal.,1991). Plate58.CattlegrazingunderTallcoconuttrees--usefulforweedcontrol. 6.1.1Productionsystems Smallholderfarmersoftenhaveoneortwocattlewhicharegrazedonwhateverfeedresources are available in their area and do not seek to optimise the coconut-animal system (Plate 59) that might require a high labour input and other investment costs. However, in intensive farming systems, cattle are generally fed supplementary ration and shortfalls in feed are overcomebycuttingnaturallyoccurringgrassesandtreelegumesfromcommunalareassuch asroadsides(Reynolds,1988). 85 Plate59.Cattlegrazingundercoconuts(Photocredit:Rozotte,2013). 6.1.2Livestockmanagement(DallaRosa,1993) Cattledobestincoolweatherandheathasanegativeeffectonthewell-beingofmostcattle breeds(Plucknett,1974).Risingbodytemperaturesuppressesanimalmetabolismcausinglack of movement, loss of appetite, and a marked reduction in productivity (Guzman and Allo, 1975).Thetemperatureinthespaceundercoconutsisgenerallylowerbyabout6°Cthaninthe openandthisissuitablefortherearingofbetterbreedsofanimals(Ferdinandez,1978).Cattle canthusbenefitfromthepresenceofcoconutpalmsoverhead. 6.1.3Cattlenutrition Withtheappropriatespeciesmixandcattlestockingdensity,pasturesinthepartialshadeof coconuts can provide adequate feed. Pasture under the relatively open, mature stand, can produce liveweight gains and milk yields comparable to those from pasture under open conditions(Reynolds,1988). 6.1.4Potentialproblems Damage to fronds of young coconuts could be caused by grazing animals and it is usual practicetokeepcattleawayfromyoungcoconutsuntilfrondsareoutofreachofthegrazing animals.Thetimerequiredforcoconutstogrowbeyondthereachofcattlevariesfrom5years withtheDwarfsto10yearswithTalls.Animalschewingonfrondscanstunttheirgrowth;they can also kill a young palm if the growing point is damaged. Damage to stems of coconuts is minimalalthoughthereareconcernsoverpossiblesoilcompactionandincreasederosionthat mayoccurwhentheunderstoryvegetationisovergrazed(Reynolds,1988).Anotherpotential problem is the gradual compaction of soil by trampling. One preventative practice is disking every 4 - 5 years (Guzman and Allo, 1975). This will also stimulate coconut root function if limitedtotheupper30cm. Therhinocerosbeetle(Oryctesrhinoceros),hasatendencytomakeitshomewherethereisa lotofcattledung.Freerangingcattlemaythusincreasetheincidenceofthisseriouscoconut 86 pest.Anotherproblemisthedegreeofpersistenceofweedspeciesandcontrolofunpalatable weedinfestations(Ohler,1992;Shelton,1991a,1991b). 6.2Theforagecomponent Ingeneralterms,yieldofforagesislinearlyrelatedtotheamountoflightavailable,provided thatotherfactorsaffectinggrowtharenotlimiting.Thusinacoconutplantationwith50%light transmission, the yield of a highly productive grass like Panicum maximum will be approximately50%oftheyieldachievedinfullsunlight.Thereareforagespeciesthatexhibit varyingdegreesofshadetoleranceandthisshouldbeanimportantfactorforconsiderationin thechoiceofpasturespecies(Ferdinandez,1978). Generally,naturally-occurringpasturespeciesincoconutplantationsareunproductiveanddo not respond sufficiently to added fertilisers (Ferdinandez, 1978). They also have a carrying capacity of no more than one animal to 2.3 ha. Consequently, improved species should be introduced. Their suitability is measured in terms of production during the growing season, palatability,nutritivevalue,digestibility,andtolerancetoextremesofsoilmoistureconditions (Ferdinandez,1978). Wheretheaimistodomorethanmerelykeepweedsundercontrol,sothatfallennutscanbe located,thenvariousexoticgrassandlegumespeciesareavailable.Palisadegrass(Brachiaria brizantha), Signal grass (B. decumbens), Cori grass (B. miliformis), Para grass (B. mutica), Pangola grass (Digitaria decumbens) and Guinea grass (Panicum maximum) have performed well in various countries under coconut canopies (Ferdinandez, 1978; Dalla Rosa, 1993; Reynolds,1995a). 6.2.1Mixedpastures Legumesincreasethenutritivevalueanddigestibilityofpasturesandtransferfixednitrogento thegrass.Legumesalsomaintainadequatelevelsofprotein,palatability,digestibilityand voluntaryintakeasgrassesmatureandhavegreaterfibrecontentandlowercrudeproteinand digestibilityparticularlyduringthedryseason(Ferdinandez,1978). Thelegumesthathavebeenfoundtoperformwellinmixedpasturesundercoconutsandare, therefore, most suited to coconut plantations include Centrosema (Centrosema pubescens), Siratro(Macroptiliumatropurpureum),Puero(Pueraria phaseoloides),Stylosantes (Stylosantes guianensis), Desmodium (Desmodium triflorum L.), Vigna (Vigna unguiculata), and Mimosa (Albiziajulibrisin).LegumesthatcombineparticularlywellwithB.brizanthaandD.decumbens includeD.heterophyllum,D.triflorumL.andAlysicarpus vaginalis.Animportanttreelegumeis Leucaena leucocephala but this does not demonstrate good shade tolerance under coconut (Ferdinandez,1978). 87 6.2.2Fertiliserrequirementsofpastureundercoconut Thekeytoobtaininghighpastureyieldscombinedwithhighcoconutyieldsistoeliminate competitionfornutrientsbetweenthetwocrops.SplitNPKfertilisationisessentialfor optimumyields;inthecaseofcoconut,thefertiliserisplacedatthedripoftheleaveswhileitis broadcastinthepasture.Anitrogenapplicationof60kg/ha/yearwasfoundtogiveoptimum yieldsofpasturespecies(Ferdinandez,1978). 6.2.3Grazingcontrol Propergrazingcontrolisthekeytoanyproductivelivestockoperation.Inthecoconut system,grazingcanbeusedasatoolbothtomaximisepastureyield,andto minimisecompetitionbetweenthepastureplantsandthecoconutsforsoilnutrients andmoisture.Theregularandproperlytimedgrazingoftopgrowthcangreatlyreduce excessivepastureplanttranspirationandthuscompetitionforwater.Cattlerecycle plantbiomassandreturnnutrientstothesysteminorganicmanure. Grazingcontrolisespeciallyimportantfor"local"pasture.Localpasturevegetationcan oftenprovejustasproductiveasimprovedpasturemixes,withawellmonitored rotationalgrazingprogram,someseedingofleguminousforagespecies,andan occasionaladditionofNPKfertiliser(DallaRosa,1993). Grazingcanreducecompetitionfromtheunderstoreyvegetationbyrecyclingnutrients lockedupinsidethestandingbiomass(Reynolds,1988).Short-grazedvegetationalso permitsahigherrecoveryrateofnuts.Shadingbythecoconutplantsprovidesalower heatloadonanimalsandpositivelyaffectsanimalproductivity.Grazingshouldnotbe permittedinyoungcoconutplantationsuntilfrondsareoutofreachofgrazinganimals. A near doubling of coconut yield was reported by several researchers when previously ungrazedcoconutplantationsweregrazed.Thiswasprobablyonlypartlyrelatedtoincreased nutrient cycling; the main effect of grazing being related to a higher recovery rate of nuts in shortgrazedvegetation.Negativeeffectsofanyunderstoreyvegetationoncoconutyieldmust beexpectedifrainfallorsoilfertilityismarginalforcoconutgrowth,althoughthelattercanbe amelioratedbysufficientfertilisation.Competitionformoistureislikelytooccurwhereannual rainfallisbelow1750mm,particularlyifrainfallisnotevenlydistributed(Reynolds,1988). Cut-and-carrysystemsextractaconsiderableamountofnutrientsfromtheforageproduction areasoparticularcareisrequiredtonotremovetheforageawayfromthecoconutunderstorey soastoreturnnutrientstotheforagearea.Suchremovalmayresultinlossofcoconutyield andcauseasharpdeclineinforageyield. Ploughingordiskingevery4yearsorsoisadvisedforanypasture.Thiswillpreventexcessive soilcompactionfromanimaltraffic.Theshallowcultivationofcoconutlandtoabout25cmalso prunes the uppermost coconut roots. This is reported to stimulate the roots which tend to explorethedeepersoillayers(Asghar,1987;DallaRosa,1993). 88 6.2.4Thepastureblockrotationsystem(DallaRosa,1993) Thefollowingrotationsystemisrecommendedforoptimalproductivity: Stage 1: 0 - 5 years. Cattle must be kept off to prevent damage to young coconuts. Adequate sunlight reaches the ground between the coconuts and sun-loving forage crops can be raised as "cut and carry" animal feed. Alternatively, more light-demanding food cropscanbegrown,suchaschilies,cabbage,cassavaandginger. Stage2:5-20years.Pastureproductivitywillberelativelylowduetodenseshading.More shade-tolerantfood/cashcropscanbegrown,suchascacaoandkava. Stage3:From20yearsuntilcoconutreplacementthereareidealconditionsforpastureand cattleproduction. Thelengthsofthesecoconutgrowthphasesaredeterminedbythecattlebreedandgrowing environment.Thephasescanbeshortenedorlengthenedtosuitmanagementgoals,sizeofthe herd,sizeofpastureandotherfactors. 6.3 Future(Reynolds,1995b) Thefollowingfactorsserveasguidestothefutureofcoconut-animalproductionsystemsbased onpastexperiencesoflivestockproductionintegratedincoconutplantations: i) For the immediate future, the large majority of coconut areas will remain planted at traditional spacings, so there is a continuing need to identify grass and legume species for reducedlightsituations(andespeciallylessthan50%lighttransmission). ii)Wherehighyieldinghybridsareplantedatevencloserspacingsthanthosetraditionallyused, itremainstobeseenifintergrazingisfeasiblepriortocanopyclosure. iii)Theidentificationofforagespeciesbetteradaptedtothelowlightenvironmentofcoconut plantations(lessthan50%)whicharecapableofpersistingunderheavygrazingpressure. iv) The adoption of coconut planting (rectangular) configurations with wide between row spacing which allow for maximum light penetration, encourage cultivation, improve forage yieldsandtowhich,toalargeextent,foragespeciesalreadyavailablewouldbewelladapted. v) More detailed and systematic studies of the pasture-livestock-crop-coconut system and to developmanagementoptionsforthefarmer. vi)Betterutilisationofexistingby-productsandalternativefeedresourcesforlivestockinthe smallholdercoconutbasedfarmingsystems. 6.4 Researchneeds(DallaRosa,1993)andfutureoutlook(Reynolds,1995b) Thereisaneedtoidentifygoodpasturespeciescombinations,optimalcoconutstanddensities, and appropriate spatial and temporal arrangements in a range of environments. Further screeningandevaluationofshade-tolerantpasturespeciesthatwillnotcompeteaggressively withcoconutpalmswouldassistinterestedfarmersimmensely.Promisingspeciesmustthenbe tested under various cutting, grazing and fertilisation regimes. Also, economic studies 89 comparing the cattle-under-coconut system to cattle and coconut production as separate enterprisesareurgentlyneeded. There is need to adopt coconut planting (rectangular) configurations with wide between-row spacingtoallowformaximumlightpenetrationsoastofacilitatebetterforageyields.Better utilisationofexistingby-productsandalternativefeedresourcesshouldbemadeforlivestock in the smallholder coconut based farming systems. Research should continue to identify alternative tree legumes to supplement Leucaena where infestation of the Leucaena psyllid (Heteropsylla cubana) has devastated production and severely affected smallholder cattle feedingsystems(DallaRosa,1993;Reynolds,1995b). 6.5 Socio-economicaspectsofproduction Thefollowingfactorsmustbetakenintoaccountwhenconsideringcoconut-animalproduction systems: -Financing. -Informationsystems. -Plantationinfrastructure(machineryandequipment,irrigationanddrainagesystem,access roads). -Labouravailabilityandcostcomparedtococonutmonoculture. -Marketingsystem,costofproduction,netincome. -Environmentalimpact(animalgrazingchangingpasturecompositionanddestroyingother usefulvegetation,toxicanimalwastes,animalmanure,soilcompaction,animaldestructionof youngcoconutplants). 6.6Systemconstraints(Reynolds,1995b) Constraintstococonut-animalproductionsystemsinclude: i. Drought. ii. Flooding. iii. Technicalknow-howandlackofinformationoncoconut/animalsystems. iv. Costandavailabilityoflabour. v. Availabilityofimprovedanimalstock. vi. Transportation. vii. Pestsanddiseases. viii. Environmentalimpactoftoxicanimalwastes. ix. Animaldestructionofyoungcoconutplants. x. Soilcompaction. xi. Animalinterferencewithharvestingoperations. xii. Financialaspects(marketing,lackoffinancing,priceinstability). 90 6.7Disadvantagesofcoconutanimalproductionsystems (Reynolds,1995b) i. ii. iii. iv. v. vi. vii. viii. ix. x. xi. Competition between intercropped pasture species and coconut for water or plant nutrients. Intercropped pastures may be uneconomical when planted where light is insufficient becausecoconuttreesaretooclosetogether. Intercroppedpasturesmayharbourdiseasesorattractpestsharmfultococonuts. Raising more than one crop (e.g. coconut and pasture species) on the same land area couldincreasetheneedforfertiliser,whichmaynotbeavailable. Initially, as palms are shallow-rooted, tillage and cultivation operations required for intercroppedpasturesmaycauserootdamagetothemaincroptherebyreducingyields. Thegrowthhabitofsomeintercroppedpasturespeciesmaycausedifficultyincertain coconutmanagementoperations(e.g.fertiliserapplication,harvesting). Where grazed pasture is the intercrop, cattle can damage young palms or cause soil compaction. This disadvantage should be compared with possible soil erosion and decliningsoilfertilitywhereotherintercropsareused. Coconut-animalproductionsystemsoftendemandagreaterinputoflabour. Grazing cattle under coconuts requires the farmer to learn additional techniques associatedwithanimalhusbandryandpasturemanagement.Lackofsuchskillsmaylead to failure. Invasion of unpalatable weeds can compete for moisture and nutrients, hindernutcollectionandmakethecattle-coconutsystemunviable. While technically feasible, the integration of ruminants with tree crops may not be socially acceptable or may require labour resources which the farmer wishes to use elsewhereorrequireinitialcapitalinvestmentwhichthefarmercannotafford. Cattledungmayserveasabreedingplaceforrhinocerosbeetle(Oryctesrhinoceros),a majorinsectpestofcoconut. 6.8Potentialbenefitsofcoconutanimalproductionsystems (Reynolds,1995b;DallaRosa,1993) i. Increased and diversified farm income, greater employment, reduced market and financialrisks,weedcontroland,increasedsoilfertility. ii. Increasedcoconutandanimalyieldsandincreasedfoodproduction. iii. Increased stability for coconut farms through diversification and reduced dependence uponproductswithunstablemarketpricessuchas,copra,coconutoil,coirandothers. iv. Careandattentiongiventomanagementofintercroppedpasturetillage,weedcontrol, useoffertilisers,amongothers,mayleadtoimprovedgrowthandyieldsofcoconutand ease in finding the fallen nuts. Coconut yields may receive more of a boost resulting from clearing undergrowth from existing areas than by planting large areas of new trees. v. Asmanagementofthegroundundercoconutsisnecessary,income-producingpastures arepreferabletoweeds. vi. Thecostofweedcontrolshoulddecrease. 91 vii. ix. x. xi. xii. xiii. xiv. xv. Young palms require 6 - 7 years to produce economic yields. Using animals and intercroppedpasturesbetweentheyoungcoconuts,forfoodorsale,mayhelptooffset thecostofcoconutestablishmentandreducethetimetofullbearingthroughimproved palmgrowth. Theremaybebetterutilisationofunderemployedlabourthroughouttheyearandthe coconutfarmer'sskilllevelmayberaised. Therecanbeapossiblereductionoftheeffectofnaturalcalamitiessuchashurricanes, pestsanddiseasesontotalproductionsincethesedonotusuallyaffectallcropspecies inthecoconutanimalproductionsystemtothesameextent. They can be helpful in conserving foreign exchange by supplying the domestic market withessentialfoodproductsthusreducingtheneedtoimport. Usinglegumesasintercroppedpasturesmayleadtoincreasedsoilfertilitywhilecattle fertilise (with manure and urine) the soil. This can increase the productive life of the plantation. Thereisbetteruseofscarcelandresources. Coconuts may provide a better grazing environment for cattle than open areas. The temperature under coconut shade is approximately 4 – 6°C lower than in open areas; thusdecreasingthenegativeeffectsofheatstress(Robinson,1983). Many by-products from tree crop processing are readily available and potentially valuableforruminantfeedingandstrategicsupplementation. 6.9Institutionalsupport In coconut-animal production systems, institutional support required is as stated for intercroppingsystemsinSection5.8–Chapter5. 6.10 Concludingremarks Thecoconutproducermustconsidertheneedtoincreasecoconutplantspacing(adjustplant density) to better accommodate pasture-livestock-coconut systems in new plantations. This decision will be based on the income generated from the integrated system, management inputsrequiredandassociatedcost.Coconutplantationsofferanexcellentopportunityforthe integration of cattle and a tree crop, particularly where the land under coconuts is not fully utilisedandisweedinfested.Whileresearchworkisongoingtoidentifyadaptedforages,there isaneedtodevelopandapplylowinputsystemsinmanycoconutareaswherepoorfarmers arefacedwithfeedshortagesespeciallyinthedryseason(Reynolds,1995b). 92 APPENDIX1-Coconutproductiondatainthe25mostimportantcoconut producingcountriesoftheworld(2013)(Ref:Worldatlas,2015) Rank 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 Country Indonesia Philippines India Brazil SriLanka Vietnam PapuaNewGuinea Mexico Thailand Malaysia UnitedRepublicof Tanzania Myanmar SolomonIslands Vanuatu Ghana Jamaica DominicanRepublic Nigeria Venezuela Mozambique China Fiji Coted'Ivoire Samoa Kiribati Production(tonnes) 16,601,480 13,928,188 10,822,714 2,622,023 2,279,755 1,182,811 1,088,622 965,607 916,256 586,886 480,807 385,553 371,945 371,945 332,195 281,227 260,302 240,403 239,376 235,868 230,987 204,116 176,901 172,365 154,221 93 APPENDIX2-CoconutproductionintheCaribbeancountries(2013) Main sources: Country 1. Factfish.2016 2. Singhetal.,2008 Locationof main cultivated areas Mainvarieties Mainchallenges St.Thomas, Portland, St.Mary Samana Peninsula, Maria Trinidad Sanchez,El Seibo,La Altagracia, Barahona, Cabral, Neyba Pomeroon, WestBank Berbice PanamaTall; Maypan; MalayanDwarfs AfricanTall; MalayanDwarfs; TxDhybrid PB121 Praediallarceny; coconutmite;rats; LY;budrot Highexportmarket demandmuchgreater thanlocalsupply; LY 47,980 281,227 47,898 260,302 PanamaTall; MalayanDwarfs 6,880 68,356 Cuba Baracoa, Criollo, GreenIndian, Greenhybrids 18,085 58,621 Haiti Nodata Manyfarmsinactive orabandonedalong DemeraraandBerbice coasts;trees40-80 yearsold;Pomeroon lackspublicutilities; highproductioncosts; poordrainage;RPM; RRD;Cedroswilt Slowrecoveryfrom early1990’spostsoviet-bloccollapseof industry; coconutmite;LY LY 8,996 25,401 2,499 14,968 2,999 13,607 Jamaica Dominican Republic Guyana Trinidad& Tobago St.Lucia Granma, Ciegode Avila PanamaTall; MalayanDwarfs NorthEast, TrinidadTall; Eastern, MalayanDwarfs; Southwest Malayasian coasts Giant Soufriere, PanamaTall; 2/3farmsinactiveor abandoned;trees50- 80yearsold;praedial larceny;RPM;RRD Trees50-80years Area (ha) Production dehusked nuts (tonnes) 94 Suriname Babano Coronie, Saramacca Dominica Nodata Grenada Nodata PuertoRico Nodata St.Vincent &the Grenadines OrangeHill, Lowman, Windwards, Hudleys, Springarea Scattered across islands Scattered across islands Scattered across island Stann Creek,Cayo, Orange Walk Scattered across islands Scattered across island St.Kitts& Nevis Bahamas Barbados Belize Cayman Islands Antigua& Barbuda MalayanDwarfs SurinameTall; CeylonDwarfs; SurinameDwarf; Surinamebrown Dwarf; MalayanDwarfs; MalayanDwarfx SurinameDwarf hybrid PacificTall; ChineseDwarfs PanamaTall; MalayanDwarfs PanamaTall; MalayanDwarfs PanamaTall; MalayanDwarfs old;coconutmite RRD 953 11,347 RPM 2,799 7,257 Nodata 1,749 5,742 Nodata 220 3,765 Trees50-80years old;praediallarceny; coconutmite 750 2,721 PanamaTall; MalayanDwarfs LY 450 2,721 PanamaTall; MalayanDwarfs LY 330 2,358 PanamaTall; MalayanDwarfs Nodata 550 1,995 PanamaTall; Maypan; MalayanDwarfs Coconutmite; RRD;LY 222 944 PanamaTall; MalayanDwarfs LY Nodata 15 PanamaTall; MalayanDwarfs LY Nodata <15 ALLCOUNTRIES • Needelite germplasmand 95 • • • • plantation resuscitation. Lowcoconut supplyfor processing. NeedGAPs/IPM and mechanization. LackVAproducts, marketingand financing. Lowyields. Notes: LY=Lethalyellowingdisease RRD=Redringdisease RPM=Redpalmmite GAPs=Goodagriculturalpractices IPM=Integratedpestmanagement VA=Valueadded TxD=TallcrossedwithDwarf 96 APPENDIX3–Economicanalysisfortheproductionof1acre(0.4ha)of coconutforwaterinTrinidad&Tobago(Ramkhelawan,2013) Assumptions Plantingstartedatonsetofrainyseason. SpacingforDwarftypes:6.5x6.5mor7x7m. Plantsperacre=100≡247perha. PlantingmaterialfromcoconutestatesinTrinidad&Tobago. Adequatesoiltype(bestperformanceonsandyloamorsandyclayloam)withgooddrainage. Flattopography. Timetoharvest:3½-4yearsafterplantingwithgoodmanagement. Cropduration:50years Labourcostpermanday=US$31.25(1US$≡6.4TT$) Table3.Summaryofincome,expenditureandprofit(US$)for1acre(0.4ha)ofcoconutfor waterduringuptoyear8(datafor2013). Year Nuts/tree Nuts/ac Farmgate price/nut (US$) Income/ac Expenditure/ac (US$) *Deficit/ac orProfit/ac (US$) 1 0 0 0 0 2,331 -2,331 2 0 0 0 0 1,555 -1,555 3 0 0 0 0 1,711 -1,711 4 40 4,000 0.3125 1,250 1,711 -461 5 60 6,000 0.3125 1,875 **1,805 70 6 85 8,500 0.3125 2,656 **1,805 851 7 110 11,000 0.4688 5,157 **1,805 3,352 8 110 11,000 0.4688 5,157 **1,805 3,352 *Notedeficitsinyears1,2,3and4. **Increasedexpenditureduringyears5-8duetoincreasedcostofagrochemicalsandlabour. 97 Table4.Costofproduction(US$)for1acre(0.4ha)ofcoconut(forwater) ITEMS YEAR1 YEAR2 YEAR3 (US$) (US$) (US$) Cropestablishment (a)LandClearing 195.31 _ _ (b)Plough 125.00 _ _ (c)Rotovate 93.75 _ _ (d)Drainage:5mandays 156.25 _ 156.25 (e)100seedlings@$10.00each 156.25 _ _ (f)Labourtoplant:4mandays 125.00 _ _ (g)Moulding:4mandays 125.00 _ _ Sub-totalestablishment 976.56 - 156.25 Cropmaintenance (a) (i)Fertiliser(12-24-12) 125.00 125.00 125.00 (ii)Labour:2mandays 62.50 62.50 62.50 (b) (i)WeedControl 54.69 54.69 54.69 (systemicherbicide) (ii)Labour(application, 468.75 468.75 468.75 roundweed,weedwacker) 15mandays (c) Irrigation:20mandays 625.00 625.00 625.00 (d) (i)Pestanddiseasecontrol 31.25 31.25 31.25 (chemical) (ii)labour:6mandays 187.50 187.50 187.50 Sub-totalcropmaintenance 1,554.69 1,554.69 1,554.69 TOTAL 2,531.25 1,554.69 1,710.94 98 BIBLIOGRAPHY 123RFLtd.2016.Coconutseedstockphotosandimages.www.123rf.com AgfishtechPortal.2012.Coconut.BureauofAgriculturalResearch. Aguirre,A.A.andOpiniano,J.2016.HeadlinesofTheConnection-Thecoconutpest’snow named:What’snext?TheFilipinoConnection28April2016.http://thefilipinoconnection.net/ Albada,V.C.1921.Thepollinationofcoconut–Phillip.Agriculturist,X,pp.195–207. Alfaimg.2016.Showingmealybugsonpalms.alfa-img.com AmericanPublicGardensAssociation.2012.CoconutRhinocerosBeetle(CRB).Plantprotection program.http://www.plantheroes.org/coconut-rhinoceros-beetle AmpolfoodGroup.2016.FromdroughtconditionstoThaicoconutextinctioncrisis. APFforThaiAgriculturist.http://www.ampolfood.com/en/social05.php AnaamayaOrganicClub.2015.HomeMadeInsectTrap:PheromoneTrap.www.youtube.com Armstrong,W.P.2003.Coconut.http://waynesword.palomar.edu Asghar, M. 1987. Coconut intercropping: physico-chemical constraints and soil fertility implications.InM.Asghar,S.C.OoiandD.F.Osborn,Eds.ProceedingsoftheFifthSouthPacific Regional Meeting on Agricultural Research, Development, Extension and Training in Coconut. Alafua:IRETA,USP,pp.94-104. Balasubramaniam,K.,Atukorala,T.M.S.,Wijesundera,S.,Hoover,A.A.,anddaSilva,M.A.T. 1973. Biochemical changes during germination of the coconut (Cocos nucifera L). Annals of Botany31:439–446. Batugal,P.V.,Rao,R.andOliver,J.2005.Coconutgeneticresources.IPGRI–APO,Malaysia. Baylon,G.B.andRivera,R.L.2016.Coconutnurseryselectionandmanagement.Zamboanga ResearchCenter,PhillippineCoconutAuthority,Dept.ofAgriculture.http://pca.da.gov.ph Berlin,C.1997.CoconutpalmsinBelize.CopyrightbyAdvantageInformationManagement. http://ambergriscaye.com Brammer,A.S.andCrow,W.T.2001.RedRingNematode,Bursaphelenchuscocophilus(Cobb) Baujard(Nematoda:Secernentea:Tylenchida:Aphelenchina:Aphelenchoidea: 99 Bursaphelechina)formerlyRhadinaphelenchuscocophilus.UniversityofFlorida,IFASExtension. EENY236.Accessed11-27-13.http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/in392 CaribbeanAgribusiness.2010.Coconut.www.agricarib.org/primary-dropdown/coconut Caspercorp.2011.Anillorojodelcocotero.https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qyOtl9lTcBg Chan, E. and Elevitch, C.R. 2006. Cocos nucifera L. ver. 2.1. In: Rlevitch, C. R. (ed.) Species profilesforPacificIslandAgroforestry.PermanentAgriculturalResources.Hawaii. Child,R.1974.Coconuts.2ndEdition.Longmans,GreenandCo.,London335p. CIB.2015a.Fertilizerforcoconuts.JamaicaCoconutIndustryBoard,Kingston,Jamaica. CIB.2015b.Weedcontrolincoconuts.JamaicaCoconutIndustryBoard,Kingston,Jamaica. CIRAD.2009.AhybridcoconuttocontrollethalyellowingdiseaseinGhana.CIRADAgricultural ResearchandDevelopment.http://www.cirad.fr CoconutCultivationBoard.2011.NurseryManagement,selectingmotherpalmsandseednuts. Battaramulla,SriLanka.www.coconut.gov.lk Coconut Development Board. 2013a. Package of Practices of Coconut. Government of India, Kerala,India.http://coconutboard.nic.in/package.htm CoconutDevelopmentBoard.2013b.Shiftedcoconutseedlinginpolybag. www.coconutboard.in CoconutDevelopmentBoard.2014.Germinationstartednurserybeds.www.coconutboard.in CoconutResearchInstituteofSriLanka.2006.Nurserymanagementandseedlingsselection. AdvisoryCircularNo.A2.www.cri.gov.lk CoconutResearchInstituteofSriLanka.2016a.Plantingandmanagementofcoconut plantations.www.cri.gov.lk CoconutResearchInstituteofSriLanka.2016b.Irrigationmanagementincoconut. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vYn2O1bY4JU) CopracoProducts.2014.Coconutwhitescaleinsect.www.copraco.com/blog/apr20.html CPCRI.2007.IntegratedPestManagementCDforCoconut.CentralPlantationCropsResearch Institute,Kasaragod. 100 Creencia, R. 1978. Cultural management of coconuts. Paper presented at the 5th. National CoconutConsultation,Bago-Oshiro,Davao,Philippines. CTAHR.1996.Coconutpalmsfromseed.CTAHRfactsheet–OrnamentalsandflowersNo.23. CTAHRCooperativeExtensionService,Hawaii,USA. Cuavas,S.E.1975.Annualcropspeciesundercoconuts.NationalCoconutResearch Symposium.TaclobanCityPhilippines).November17-191975. DallaRosa,K.R.1993.Cattleundercoconuts-apracticalPacifictradition. PublishedbytheAgroforestryInformationService(AIS)oftheNitrogenFixingTreeAssociation (NFTA).ApublicationoftheAgroforestryInformationService.July1993,Number7.Winrock International.http://factnet.winrock.org/fnrm/factnet.htm. Darwis, S.N. 1990. Coconut based farming system cropping models in Indonesia. In: Coconut Based Farming Systems (ed. Silva, de S.), Proc. XXVII COCOTECH Meeting 25–29 June,1990. Manila,Philippines,263–276. Dave’sGarden.2016.EdiblePalms:Anintroductiontopalmfruits.www.davesgarden.com DeejayFarms.2015.Controlofcoconutblack-headedcaterpillar(OspisinaArenosella,Walker). http://deejayfarm.com Dept.ofAgriculture.2013.Methodsofharvestingcoconut–Polemethod.Module6Lesson2. MindanaoRuralDevelopmentProgram.http://mrdp.da.gov.ph DeTaffin,1998.Coconut.TheTropicalAgriculturistSeries.CTA,MacmilllanEducationLtd., London. Devanathan,V.2013.Cocoaintercroppingpicksupincoconutplantationsascropyield improves.TheTimesofIndia.June17,2013. Dilbar,A.2013.RedRingdiseasemanagementstrategyforTrinidad&Tobago.CTAWorkshop onCoconutIndustryDevelopmentfortheCaribbean:Towardsasharedvisionandroadmap, Georgetown,Guyana. Dowe,J.L.2010.AustralianPalms–Biogeography,EcologyandSystematics.AustralianCentre forTropicalFreshwaterResearch,JamesCookUniversity,Qld,Australia.CSIROPubl. Dreamstime.2016a.Coconutpalmseedlings.www.dreamstime.com Dreamstime.2016b.Diseaseinfectedfruits.www.dreamstime.com EatingAsia.2008.DIYCoconutoil.http://eatingasia.typepad.com 101 Eden-Green,S.2013.ChallengesofcoconutpestsanddiseasesfortheCaribbeanregion. CARDI/CTAWorkshopon“CoconutIndustryDevelopmentfortheCaribbean”,CWA, Georgetown,[email protected] Elfick,J.2016.Coconuts–Coconutproject.CoconProj.www.uq.edu.au EncyclopaediaBritannica,Inc.2016.Copra.www.britannica.com Etherington,D.M.andKarunanayake,K.1981.Aneconomicanalysisofsomeoptionsfor intercroppingundercoconutsinSriLanka.SriLankaJournalofAgrarianstudies2(1),1–25. Factfish.2016.Coconuts,productionquantity(tons)fortop90producingcountries(2013). www.factfish.com/statistic/coconuts FAO. 2007. Good practice for the small-scale production of bottled coconut water. By Rosa Rolle, Agricultural and Food Engineering Technologies Service. Rural Infrastructure and AgroIndustriesDivision,FAO,Rome. FAO.2013.IPMofImportantInsectPestsofCoconut.TheHighLevelExpertConsultationon CoconutSectorDevelopment.FAORegionalOfficeforAsiaandthePacific,Bangkok,Thailand 30October–1November2013.PresentationbyAmpornWinotai,EntomologyandZoology Group,DepartmentofAgriculture,Bangkok,Thailand. FarmsysAgro.2015.Nutrientdeficiencysymptomsincoconut.www.farmsysagro.com Ferdinandez, D.E.F. 1978. Integration of animal production and other crops into the coconut croppingsystemsinSriLanka.CoconutResearchInstitute,Lunuwila,SriLankaCeylon,Cocon.Q. 29,81—86. FlickrHiveMind.2016.Theworld’sbestphotosofcoconut–CoconutMealybug. www.flickrhivemind.net Flickriver.2016.Mayanyellowdwarfcoconuts.www.flickriver.com Frankel,R.andGalun,E.1977.PollenMechanisms,reproduction,andplantbreeding.SpringerVerlag,BerlinHeidelberg,NewYork.281p. Furtado,C.X.1923.Thecoconutinflorescences–PoonaAgric.CollegeMagazine,xiv,pp213– 221. Ghose, S. and Gopalakrishnan, R. 2013. Coconut guide – 2013. Coconut development board. Kochi,MinistryofAgriculture,GovernmentofIndia. 102 GoaChitra.2009.Toolsofthecoconuttrade.www.goachitra.com Gogo159.2016.CoconutHarvesting.www.flickr.com Grifith,R.1987.RedRingDiseaseofCoconutpalm.PlantDisease/February1987.TheAmerican PhytopathologicalSociety.PlantDis.71:193-196. Growables.2014.Nutrientdeficienciesinpalms.www.growables.org GuyanaMarketingCorporation.2014.CoconutproductionandPost-harvesthandling.Guyana MarketingCorporation.www.newgmc.com Guzman,M.R.andAllo,A.V.1975.Pastureproductionundercoconuts.Taipei:ASPAC/FFTC. Hara,A.H.2014.CoconutRhinocerosBeetle,Oryctesrhinoceros.AMajorThreattoHawaii’s CoconutandPalmTrees.Univ.ofHawaiiatManoa.http://www.ctahr.hawaii.edu Harries,H.C.1978.Evolution,dissemination,andclassificationofCocosnuciferaL.Botanical Review44:265–320. Harries,H.C.2016.Germinationrateisthesignificantcharacteristicdeterminingcoconutplant diversity. AOB Plants – the open-access journal for plant sciences. Online ISSN 2041 – 2851. AnnalsofBotanyCompany.OxfordUniversityPress. Harrison,N.A.andElliott,M.L.2008.LethalYellowingofPalms.ThePlantHealthInstructor. DOI:10.1094/PHI-I-2008-0714-01.TheAmericanPhytopathologicalSociety(APS). http://www.apsnet.org Healthytrac.2014.Benefitsofconsumingcoconutgreenforpregnantwomen. http://healthytrac.blogspot.com HoDinhHai.2014.Vietnamesecoconut.www.sites.google.com Homesteadgardening.2013.Coconut–apalmgivingeverythingforlife. www.echomesteadgardening.com Indiamart.2016a.CoconutseedlingsfromIndia.InterMESHLtd.www.dir.indiamart.com Indiamart.2016b.CoconuttreeclimberfromIndia.InterMESHLtd.www.dir.indiamart.com Infonet-Biovision.2016.Coconut.www.infonet-biovision.org Invasive.org.2010.Palmlethalyellowing.JointprojectoftheCenterforInvasiveSpeciesand EcosystemHealthandUSDAAPHISPPQ.http://www.invasive.org 103 Itslife.2016.Coconut.http://www.itslife.in/goodness-of-nature/coconut-2 [email protected] Jepson,F.P.1915.DepartmentofAgriculture,Fiji.PamphletNo.16,p3. KissanKerala.2016.Coconut(Cocosnucifera).KarshakaInformationSystemsServicesand Networking,Kerala,India.www.kissankerala.net LibraryofCongress.2010.Everydaymysteries–Isthecoconutafruit,nutorseed?Libraryof Congress–Researchers–ScienceReferencesServices.August23,2010.www.loc.gov. Liyanage, M.deS., K.G. Tejwani, and Nair, P.K.R. 1986. Intercropping under coconuts in Sri Lanka.COCOS,(1986)4,23-34.CoconutResearchInstitute,Lunuwila,SriLanka. Magat, S.S. 1990. Growing conditions and growth habits of coconut in relation to coconutbasedfarmingsystems.In:CoconutBasedFarmingSystems(ed.Silva,deS.),XXVIICOCOTECH Meeting,25–29June,1990,Manila,Philippines,17–40. Magat, S.S. and Secretaria, M.I. 2007. Coconut-Cacao (Cocoa) Cropping Model. Coconut Intercropping Guide No.7. Philippine Coconut Authority Research & Development and Extension Branch, Department of Agriculture, Elliptical Rd., Diliman, Quezon City 1101, Philippines. Manjula,C.,Chempakam,B.andRajagopal,V.1993.Solubilizationandutilizationofseed reservesduringthegerminationofcoconut.JournalofPlantationCrops21(Supp.):313–321. Manoharan,T.2012.Expertsystemforcoconut.TamilNaduAgriculturalUniversity,New Dehlu.Indiancouncilofagriculturalresearch(ICAR). Menon, K.P.V. and Pandalai, K.M. 1960. The coconut palm. A monograph. India central coconutcommittee.TimesofIndiaPress.Bombay,Indiap.384 Myrie,W.A.2013.LethalYellowingDiseaseofCoconutPalms.JamaicaCoconutIndustryBoard. CTAWorkshopon:CoconutIndustryDevelopmentfortheCaribbean.CWA2013. http://www.cwa.caricom.org/ Myrie, W.A., Harrison, N.A., Douglas, L., Helmick, E., Gore-Francis, J., Oropeza, C. and McLaughlin, W.A. 2014. First report of lethal yellowing disease associated with subgroup 16SrIV-AphytoplasmasinAntigua,WestIndies.NewDiseaseReports(2014)29,12. 104 Nagarjuna Group. 2016. Coconut nursery management. Nagarjuna Fertilizers and Chemicals Ltd.,Hyderabad,India.www.ikisan.com Nambiar, K.K.N. 1999. Diseases of coconut and their management, - An IPM approach. IPM systeminAgriculture,V11–oilseeds.AdityaBooksPvt,Ltd,NewDehli. Newton’sApple.2016.Thecommoncoconut.www.newtonsapple.org.uk Norton, B.W., Wilson, J.R., Shelton, H.M. and Hill, K.D. 1991. The effect of shade on forage quality.In:Proc.ofWorkshopForagesforPlantationCrops,Shelton,H.M.andStur,W.W.(ed.). SanurBeach,Bali,Indonesia27-29June1990.ACIARProc.No.32,83-88. Ohler,J.G.1992.Moderncoconutmanagement;palmcultivationandproducts.PublicationID 127,FAO,Rome. OneTwoThreeInc.2015.Commonpalmtreeproblems.www.onetwothree.com OneStopofX.2014.Innovativewaytoclimbacoconuttree.www.onestopx.blogspot.com Oommen,S.K.2001.Intercroppingincoconutplantations.DepartmentofPlantBreedingand Genetics, College of Agriculture, Vellayani, Thiruvanthapuram-695522, Kerala, India. Online editionofIndia'sNationalNewspaper–TheHINDU,Thursday,January11,2001. Opio,F.1992.Coconut-basedFarmingSystemsinthePacific.ModernCoconutManagement; palm cultivation and products by J.G. Ohler (EcoPort version by Peter Griffee). Publication ID 127.FAO,Rome. Oyoo,M.E.,Najya,M.,Githiri,S.M.,Ojwang,P.O.,Muniu,F.K.,Masha,E.andOwuoche,J.O. 2015. In-situ morphological characterization of coconut in the coastal lowlands of Kenya. AfricanJournalofPlantScienceVol.9(2).65–74. PeasantAutonomy.2016.VillagelifenearMangalore,Karnataka,India. [email protected] Pestnet,2016.Mites,Tahiticoconuts.www.pestnet.org Philippines Coconut Authority. 2015. Pollination by honeybees in the Philippines. Philippines CoconutAuthorityR&DBranch.www.pca.da.gov.ph/coconut PigletinPortugal.2011.TheRedPalmweevil–isitoutofcontrol? https://pigletinportugal.com 105 Pilgrim, R. 2011. Producing coconuts using the dwarf plant. CARDI FactsheetSL/001/10. St. Augustine,TrinidadandTobago:CaribbeanAgriculturalResearchandDevelopmentInstitute. Pinterest.com.2016.Dwarfcoconuttree.www.pinterest.com Plucknett, D.L. 1974. Managing pastures and cattle under coconuts. Westview Tropical AgricultureSeries2.Boulder,CO(USA):WestviewPress. Plucknett, D.L. 1979. Managing pastures and cattle under coconuts. Westview Tropical Agricultureseriesno.2,Westviewpress,Colorado,U.S.A. Ponce, J.T. 2013. Tropical Fruits Facts and Legends: Coconut – The Tree ofLife. https://jessieponce.wordpress.com Prabu,M.J.2007.ManagingBud-rotincoconut.TheHinduNewspaper,India.August2,2007. ProMED-mail.2014.Budrot,Coconutpalm–India(Kerala).InternationalSocietyforInfectious Diseases.ArchiveNumber:20140410.2393856.http://www.promedmail.org Proud, K.R.S. 2005. A Guide to Intercropping Coconuts. Principles for developing productive uplandagricultureinthehumidtropics.PreparedfortheUplandDevelopmentProgrammein SouthernMindanao(UDP).ProjectALA–97/68www.udpmindanao.org. Ramdwar,M.N.A.2012.GoodAgriculturalpracticesforcropandlivestockproduction.In SustainablefoodproductionpracticesintheCaribbean.EditedbyWyaneG.Ganpatand Wendy-AnnP.Isaac.Jamaica.IanRandlePublishers.387-408. Ramkhelawan,E.2013.Growers’guideforcoconut.MinistryofFoodproduction.CaroniSouth BankRoad,Trinidad.CentralExperimentStation,Centeno. Ranasinghe,T.K.G.1998.Suitablevarietiesofcoconutforindustrialprocessing.IFPRIRegional OfficeforAsia,thePacificandOceania.COGENTWorkshop26–29September1996,Thailand. Reynolds,S.G.1988.Pasturesandcattleundercoconuts.FAOPlantProductionandProtection Paper91.Rome:FAO Reynolds,S.G.1995a.Integrationofanimalproductionincoconutplantations.Grasslandand PastureCropsGroupAGP,FAO,Rome. Reynolds,S.G.1995b.Pasture-cattle-coconutsystems.FAORAPAPublication1995/7,Rome: FAO.668p. Reynolds,S.G.1995c.Cattleundercoconuts. www.fao.org/ag/AGP/agpc/doc/publicat/PUBB/PB042.htm 106 Rillo, E.P. 1999. Coconut embryo culture. http://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-94015-9283-3_20#page-1 Rotor,A.V.2014.Seriouspestofcoconut–ScaleInsects(Aspidiotusdestructor). http://naturalismavrotor.blogspot.com/2014_06_01_archive.html Rozotte,C.2013.Cattlefarmingincoconutplantation. http://corinnerozotte.photoshelter.com/image/I0000imjfg1Agwoo SanPedro.2014.PNoyordersemergencydrivevscoconutbuginfestationinCalabarzon, Mindanao.www.philnews.com/headlines/2014 Santos,G.A.,Batugal,P.A.,Othman,A.,Baudouin,L.andLabouisse,J.B.1996.Manualon standardizedresearchtechniquesincoconutbreeding.COGENT-IPGRI. Satayagopal,K.,Sushil,S.N.,Jeyakumar,P.,Shankar,G.,Sharma,O.P.,Boina,D.R.,Sain,S.K., Reddy,M.N.,Rao,N.S.,Sunanda,B.S.,Kapoor,K.S.,Sanjay,A.,Subhash,K.,Patni,C.S., Gangopadhyah,S.,Mesta,R.,Venkateshalu,S.D.,Ekabote,K.andRajashekarappa,K.2014. AESAbasedIPMpackageforcoconur,pp38.NationalInstituteofplanthealthmanagement, Rajendranagar,Hyderabad,India. Senarathne,S.H.S.andGunathilake,H.A.J.2012.WeedManagementinMatureCoconut PlantationsinSriLanka.COCOS.19(2),pp.93–100. DOI:http://doi.org/10.4038/cocos.v19i2.4755 Shelton,H.M.1991a.Productivityofcattleundercoconuts.In:Proc.ofworkshopForagesfor PlantationCrops,Shelton,H.M.andStur,W.W.(ed.).SanurBeach,Bali,Indonesia27-29June 1990.ACIARProc.No.32,92-96. Shelton,H.M.1991b.ProspectsforimprovingforagesupplyincoconutplantationsoftheSouth Pacific. Forages for Plantation Crops (ed. Shelton, H.M. and Stur, W.W.), Proceedings of a workshop,SanurBeach,BaliIndonesia,27-29June,1990.ACIARProceedings32,151-156. Simonnet, P. 1990. Sheep flock management in a tropical environment under coconut. Oléagineux,45(10),451-455. Singh,R.H.,Seepersad,G.andRankine,L.B.2008.TheRegionalCoconutIndustry-Industry DevelopmentStrategies.CARICOMRegionalTransformationProgrammeforAgriculture.36p. Sites.google.com.2016.A–Z.Howtogrowacoconutpalmfromadehusked. http://sites.google.com StackExchangeInc.2016.QuestionandAnswer.http://english.stakexchange.com 107 StateofHawaii.2014.CoconutRhinocerosbeetleinformation.StateofHawaiiPlantIndustry Division.http://hdoa.hawaii.gov Sugimura,Y.1998.Ultrastructuralobservationsonthehaustoriumingerminatingcoconut. Japanesejournaloftropicalagriculture.42:178–181. Sujatha,A.2013.Personalcommunication.WorkonRedPalmMiteinTrinidad&Tobago. Teulat,B.,Aldam,C.,Trehin,R.Lebrun,P.,Barker,J.H.A.,Arnold,G.M.,Karp,A.,Baudouin,L. andRognon,F.2000.Ananalysisofgeneticdiversityincoconut(CocosnuciferaL.)populations from across the geographic range using sequence-tagged microsatellites (SSRs) and AFLPs, Theor.Appl.Genetics.100(5):764–771. Thomas,G.V.2007.Coconutcultivationpractices.CentralPlantationCropsResearchInstitute (CPCRI),Kerala,India. TNAU.2012.ExpertSystemforcoconut.TamilNaduAgriculturalUniversity.AgritechPortal- ExpertSystem.http://agritech.tnau.ac.in/expert_system/coconut. TNAU.2014.TamilNaduAgritechPortal-Horticulture:-PlantationCrops:-Coconut. www.agritech.tnau.ac.in/horticulture. TraineeAgriculturistinMalaysia.2013.Talkingaboutpassions. http://traineeagriculturist.blogspot.com UF/IFAS.2012.Redpalmmite.AuthoredbyM.A.Hoy,J.PeñaandR.Nguyen.Florida PublicationNumber:EENY-397.UniversityofFlorida,USA. UF/IFAS. 2015a. Potassium deficiency. Symptoms of diseases and disorders. – A resource for pestsanddiseasesofcultivatedpalms.UniversityofFlorida.http://idtools.org/id/palms UF/IFAS. 2015b. New on Featured Creatures! The coconut rhinoceros beetle. University of Florida. blogs.ifas.ufl.edu Ugbah,M.M.andAkpan,E.E.J.2003.Effectofnutpositioningandhuskslashingofnut germinationandgrowthoftwococonutvarieties.NigerianJournalofPalmsandOilSeeds15: 11–21. USDA–UF.2013.Imagegallery.ScreeningaidtoPests.AresourceforPestsandDiseasesof CultivatedPalms.http://idtools.org/id/palms USDA.2014.Identifyingcommonlycultivatedpalms.P.J.Anderson,Florida,USA. [email protected] 108 ValenciaInternational.2014.ValenciaversustheRedPalmWeevil. http://valencia-international.com/valencia-versus-red-palm-weevil/ ValleyWines.2016.Stepsfromplantingtoharvesting.ValleyWinesUganda. www.valleywinesuganda.com Veganbaking.net.2016.Coconutoil.www.veganbaking.net VendioServices.2016.GoldMalayDwarfcoconut.www.ez2plant.com Venture,N.2011.Coconutgrinderinuse.SriLanka:Fishingtriponatrawler. www.youtube.com Vikaspedia,2016.Nutritionaldeficiencies/disordersofcoconut.Indiadevelopmentgateway. MinistryofCommunicationsandInformationtechnology.http://vikspedia.in/agriculture Wallace,M.1994.CoconutbreedingprogrammeinJamaica.CoconutIndustryBoard,Kingston, Jamaica. Waney,N.F.L.andTujuwale,J.2002.TraditionalversusIntensiveCoconutProductioninNorth Sulawesi.SamRatulangiUniversity,FacultyofAgriculture,Sulawesi,Indonesia. Widayat,D.2014.AgricultureandPlantation.Varietiesofcoconuts. http://agriandplant.blogspot.com Wikipedia.2014.Rhynchophoruspalmarum.http://en.wikipedia.org Wikipedia.2015.Coconut.26March2015.http://en.wikipedia.org Wordpress.org.2016.www.termirepel.com Worldatlas.2015.TheWorldLeadersinCoconutProduction.www.worldatlas.com 109 CaribbeanAgriculturalResearchandDevelopmentInstitute P.O.Bag212 UniversityoftheWestIndies St.AugustineCampus St.Augustine TrinidadandTobago Tel:1.868.645.1205/8120 Fax:1.868.645.1208 Email:[email protected] Website:www.cardi.org PSC#HQ/007/16 InternationalTradeCentre PalaisdesNations 1211Geneva10 Switzerland Tel:+41-227300111 Fax:+41-227334439 Email:[email protected] Website:www.intracen.org/sectors 110