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Theoretical Perspectives Review
Structural Functionalism
Functionalists believe that everything and everybody in society has a ROLE - a function –
that makes society run smoothly.
Example: The Human Body
- The organs of a human body work together to keep us alive
- Each organ has a FUNCTION. Each organ works interdependently to help us move,
think, break, eat, pump blood etc.
- If all organs are working properly and doing their ROLE, we function “normally”
- Also, all of our natural organs and body parts have a purpose to keep us functioning
Key Theorists:
- Emilie Durkheim = one of the original and traditional sociologists
- Talcott Parsons = contemporary sociologists and functionalist
Key Terms
Function: The different parts of each society contribute positively to the operation or
functioning of the system as a whole
Institutions: Functionalist analysis looks on social systems as having certain needs, and
society as a system of social structures and institutions (economic, legal, education). If the
needs are being met, then it is the social structures that meet these needs. The structures
are thus functional in the sense that they help society to operate. Interconnections exist
within and among these structures, and individuals and groups are constrained by these
structures.
Interdependence: Since society is composed of different parts, and the proper operation of
these parts is necessary to the smooth operation of society as a whole, the interdependence
of the parts is an important feature of functional analysis. The roles taken on by people,
and the institutions and organizations of society are all interdependent.
- A change in any one part affects others, requiring other parts to take account of the
changes, modify its actions, and adapt to any changes necessary.
- So dysfunctions can occur in a fundamental society, however all parts of society will
have to adjust and adapt to create a new working and functional society once again.
Interdependence and Equilibrium: Functionalism attempts to explain the relationship of
different parts of the system to each other, and to the whole. These parts work together in
an orderly manner, without great conflict. The different parts are usually in equilibrium, or
moving toward equilibrium, with consensus rather than conflict governing the interrelationship of the various parts.
Macro: the focus is macro-sociological, with institutions and structures existing in the
society as a whole.
Consensus – Norms and Values: A consensus exists within the social system. Individual
behavior is governed by social norms (most consistent behavior in society) or rules that are
generally accepted and agreed upon. These norms and values are consistent with the
equilibrium state of society, or normal state of affairs. There are aspects of these norms
that return the society to a normal state of affairs in the case of a disturbance – for
example, sanctions, punishments, social approval, and social disapproval.
The Family Structure
The family is organized around these statuses:
- Husband/father
- Wife/mother
- Child
Each of these statuses carry a set of expectations concerning suitable behavior norms so
that is can function efficiently.
Specific Roles
1. Instrumental Role: The husband / father has an active, doing role and is responsible
for economic support of the family members
2. Expressive Role: The wife/mother has an expressive, emotional role and is
responsible for physical and emotional support of the family members. This structure
was thought to be functional for the family as well as for industrialized society.
Limitations and Criticisms of Functionalism
- Puts males and females into stereotyped roles regardless of individual differences
- Families from different social classes or situations were completely ignored
- Interactions within the family are also ignored
- Viewed change as negative and disruptive
Conflict Theory
A sociological and political theory that explains that POWER forms the basis for sociological
organization:
- Not functional interdependence
- Conflict exists between groups in society because of inequalities in power
- Example: Feminism
Macro theory explains inequalities, whereas the other theories focus on society and how it
works together.
Conflict theory sets out to criticize society.
- They question: “Functional for whom?” and argue that while functionalism may work
for society, it only benefits the higher-ranking individuals, while exploiting everyone
else
Society is divided into groups based on power and class division.
- Karl Marx
- Bourgeoisie: Smallest, richest, and most powerful group in society. This group
controls the livelihood of the poorer working people.
-
Proletariat: The lower class in society.
Karl Marx predicted that the Bourgeoisie would become smaller and smaller, while getting
richer and richer. The Proletariats would eventually become poorer and bigger – creating a
bigger gap between them. This was looked upon as a natural state of society, but Marx did
not agree and wanted to eliminate inequalities in society. He wanted communism.
Conflict Theory & Family
- The relationships between men and women within a family are one of exploitation
and oppression, and are used for analyzing power and authority within the family.
- Divisions between sexes in marriage are similar to those divisions between
Bourgeoisie and Proletariats (Feminist tend to agree).
- Men are responsible for bringing home the money, and women are expected to work
at home (essentially unpaid labor).
- Men had all the power (and money) in the household, and women had no choice but
to marry and have children. Women would not have any economic support without
men.
Feminism
Most feminists believe that the family oppresses women and keeps men in power. They
believe that society is patriarchal, in other words, the men dominate.
Patriarchy is defined as the family organization in which men hold primary authority;
thus, men make the decisions and exercise power. Feminists aim to challenge patriarchy.
Feminist theory recognizes that sexism privileges men and discriminates against women.
Feminists are committed to exposing the ways sexism and misogyny operate in society, and
their goal is to eliminate this form of inequality.
Liberal Feminism
Liberal feminists argue that discriminatory policies force women into the inferior social
class that restricts their rights to participate fully in society according to their individual
abilities.
Examples: Paid labor, working laws
Liberal feminists believe that the family is sexist because it supports mainstream culture,
which is also sexist. They advocate for change through legislation and education.
Liberal feminists believe that social change can be enacted through changes in the laws
and social policies:
- Equal Pay Act
- Sex Discrimination Act
- Laws against domestic violence and marital rape
- Better and equal education
- Equal opportunities at work
Radical Feminism
Radical feminists think that the notion of “family” excludes those who choose to pursue
different lifestyles.
They believe that patriarchy is the central source of the division of society and that the
family is an exploitive institution in which women do all the work for the benefit of men.
Radical feminists think that men exploit women as husbands, partners, sons, brothers,
and so on.
They see the family as a source of domestic violence.
Social Exchange Theory
What is Social Exchange Theory?
Social Exchange Theory is a psychological and sociological perspective that explains social
change and stability as a process of negotiated exchanges between parties.
It explains that all human relationships are formed by the use of a cost-benefit analysis
and the comparison of the alternatives.
Social exchange theory compares social interaction to transactions in the economic
marketplace. They explain interpersonal behaviors with terms of exchange like rewards and
costs.
Interrelated Theories
- Economics: Humans are rational and will seek to maximize their gain.
- Psychology: Humans will generate behaviors that will produce the greatest rewards.
- Cultural Anthropology: Exchange process derives from individuals trying to satisfy
basic needs.
The focus is on what people put into their relationships and what they get out of them.
These theorists believe that everything we do has costs (to be minimized) and rewards (to be
maximized).
Rewards: Anything that a person gains from a relationship (love, money, status,
information, goods, and services).
Costs: Negative consequences of a relationship (time and energy).
How is this related to the family?
Marital Relationships
Sibling Relationships
Parent/Child Relationships
Think about…
1. What are the costs for the sister to babysit her brother?
2. What are the rewards?
3. Is babysitting her brother worth it for her?
Symbolic Interactionism
Symbolic Interactionism attempts to explain how individuals choose how they will act on
their perceptions of themselves and of others. It deals with individual’s behaviors based on
their mental processes. (Psychology/ Micro Theory)
Symbolic interactionists give meaning to everything in society (meaning = symbol). Once a
person determines what something means to them, then they will decide how to act.
It is the perceptions or the meanings that people give to their experiences of the world that
matter, not the social facts.
Example: If someone puts a hand on your shoulder, you will interpret the gesture and
determine what it means (symbolizes) before you respond.
People act only after giving the mental process “meaning”. Mental processes are not visible;
only the actions that follow. Therefore, symbolic interactionists attempt to understand the
point of view of the actor to explain the action. This means that symbolic interactionists
prefer qualitative methods of research over quantitative methods.
Three Basic Concepts of Symbolic Interactionism
George Mead was an important symbolic interactionist and he developed a theory of the
self. An individual develops a self that has two parts: the “me” and the “I”.
- “ME” is objective – concrete qualities such as height, eye color, daughter, etc.
-
“I” is subjective – based on how feedback from others is interpreted (i.e. good student,
funny, generous, etc.)
Role taking is when people must also “take the attitude of the other” to be able to
anticipate what the other person will do and decide how they should respond.
Shared Symbols:
People are able to interact effectively if they communicate using a common language (or
shared symbols). Language (or symbols) are the means by which individuals interpret and
give meaning to their experiences of the self and others in order to interact in relationships.
Example: In the book Men are from Mars, Women are from Venus, the author explains that
mean and women have problems in relationships because each gives different meanings to
actions and words (symbols) which confuses the opposite sex.
Systems Theory
The sociological theory that attempts to explain how groups of individuals interact as a
system: a set of different parts that work together and influence one another in a relatively
stable way over time.
Influence: The capacity to have an effect on the character, development or behavior of
someone.
Feedback
Feedback implies give and take. The individuals within the family system influence one
another in a reciprocal way. This makes it difficult to trace the origins of influence.
In our everyday lives our families influence our behaviors. They also do so when they leave
the family system in cases like death or divorce.
The larger family systems contain subsystems:
- Family-unit: members sharing a household
- Interpersonal: between individuals, such as husband-wife or mother-son
- Personal: comprised of interaction between the individual as self and as member of
the family
Family systems develop strategies for achieving the goals and the functions of individuals
and of the family. The strategies are made up of patterns of interactions and behavior that
are repeated. These repeated patterns could predict future behaviors of family members or
explain current behaviors of family members.
Genogram
A genogram is a pictorial display of a person’s family relationships and medical history. It
goes beyond a traditional family tree by allowing the user to visualize hereditary patterns
and psychological factors that influence relationships. It can be used to identify repetitive
patterns of behavior and to recognize hereditary tendencies.