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Grammar Island Survival Guide Topic 1: paragraphs In writing, the most important things to consider are PURPOSE and AUDIENCE. These ultimately dictate what you say, how you say it, and even the order in which you say it. A) There are three major ways that details in a paragraph can be organized. *There are four types of writing that are determined by the PURPOSE for writing. Each purpose is best suited to the organizational pattern it is listed under. a) Chronologically: in the order in which it happens *Purpose: Telling a story--NARRATIVE When writing a narrative, it is important to provide supporting details to develop the characters and setting you are telling about. Narrative writing often includes dialogue and should also use elements of description to fully engage the reader. b) Spatially: reader’s focus is oriented from right to left, near to far, top to bottom, and so on. *Purpose: Describing something--DESCRIPTIVE When writing description, focus on the five senses to fully support your writing; this really helps the reader become a part of your writing and allows him to “be” there. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. c) Emphatically: information is arranged in order of importance, usually from least important to most important *Purpose: Explaining or reporting on a topic—INFORMATIVE/EXPLANATORY Convincing the reader by supporting a claim—PERSUASIVE ARGUMENTATION In informative/explanatory and persuasive argumentation writing, your reader is best served by a very focused style of writing. Organization is paramount to successful writing in these purposes: use topic sentences, transitions, and strong supporting details, wrapped up by a conclusion. Before you begin writing, always determine what type of writing would best respond to the task. Paragraphs: complete units of organized and rational thoughts and/or information Components of a paragraph: Green 1. Topic sentence: usually appears at the beginning of a paragraph states and focuses on the main idea of a paragraph Yellow 2. Transitions: a shift from one key idea to another; connect reasons, details, or facts about the topic Red 3. Supporting Material: reasons, details, or facts that develop, clarify, further explain the yellow which supports the topic sentence; the biggest part of the paragraph Green 4. Conclusion: sums up the paragraph, convinces readers of your position, challenges readers to think about the issue, encourages readers to take action 1 No matter what the purpose for writing, all paragraphs should be: --unified: every sentence in the paragraph should relate to a single main idea --coherent: all ideas in the paragraph should progress logically and smoothly from one sentence to another --well-developed: the paragraph should contain all of the information the reader needs to make connections between the writer’s ideas and understand the material; pretend your reader is an idiot 1. In a unified paragraph, every sentence relates to the main idea; unity is violated when something unrelated to the main idea appears. In the following paragraph, please identify the topic sentence and any transitions that the author uses. Also, circle the violation of unity. New York has a museum to suit almost any taste. The Metropolitan Museum and the Museum of Modern Art are famous for their art collections. Other important collections of art can be found at the Frick, Guggenheim, and Whitney Museums. Visitors interested in the natural sciences will enjoy the Museum of Natural History. Those interested in American history should visit the Museum of the City of New York. Getting around the city to visit the museums is easy once you have mastered the subway system. Part of Ellis Island has become a museum devoted to the history of immigration. Exhibits devoted to social and cultural history can also be found at the Jewish Museum and the Asia Society. 2. In a coherent paragraph, the relationship among the ideas is clear and meaningful (unified), and the progression from one sentence to the next is easy for readers to follow. The following sentences have unity, but lack coherence. Please rearrange the sentences in a reader-friendly fashion. Hint: Find the topic sentence first, and then consider the logical progression of events in this situation. The inside of the refrigerator was covered with black mold, and it smelled as if something had been rotting in there for years. I put new paper down on all the shelves, and my roommate took care of lining the drawers. The stove was as dirty as the refrigerator. When we moved into our new apartment, we found that the kitchen was in horrible shape. We had to scrub the walls with a wire brush and plenty of Lysol to get rid of the grease. The previous tenant had left behind lots of junk that we had to get rid of. All the drawers and cabinets had to be washed. 2 You can use this outline to draft your first challenge. Topic Sentences: Write two topic sentences using different strategies. A. B. Transitions: List the transitions that would work in a paragraph based on each topic sentence you just wrote. A. B. C. Supporting Materials: Circle your best topic sentence and jot down three reasons/details/facts to support it. A. B. C. Conclusions: Write a conclusion sentence for the topic sentence you chose to write supporting materials for. 3 Topic 2: nouns, pronouns, and pronoun/antecedent agreement Noun: person, place, thing, or idea Proper nouns: specific names (Bill Gates, Microsoft Corporations, The White House, Elm Street, Huntley Project High School, Miss Ickes). Common nouns: refer to any member of a class or category (man, software company, house, street, school, teacher). FOR THIS UNIT WE WILL ALWAYS COUNT PERSONAL PRONOUNS AS PRONOUNS. Personal pronouns: I, my, mine, me, you, your, yours, he, his, him, she, her, hers, it, its, we, Pronouns: take the our, ours, us, you, your, yours, they, their, theirs, them place of a Relative pronouns: who, whom, whose, which, that previously Interrogative pronouns (used in questions): Who…? Whose…? What…? Whom…? Which…? mentioned noun Demonstrative pronouns (used to point out a specific person or thing): this, that, these, those Indefinite pronouns (not referring to a definite person or thing): all, another, any, anybody, anyone, anything, both, each, either, everybody, everyone, everything, few, many, more, most, much, neither, nobody, none, no one, one, other, several, some, somebody, someone, such Reflexive pronouns: myself, yourself, himself, herself, itself, ourselves, yourselves, themselves Please circle the nouns and underline the pronouns in the following paragraph. There are 25 pronouns and 16 nouns. Everybody in my family likes to go camping, but few of us enjoy the experience more than I do. Last summer, several of my cousins and I stayed at a rustic camp in the mountains, which are not far from our hometown. At camp we all learned how to build a campfire and how to keep it going. A group of us even went beyond that—we learned to cook meals over the open fire. One of our counselors showed those who were interested how to cook simple meals. Each of his recipes was easy to follow, and everyone ate everything in sight. Anything cooked over an open fire tastes good, don’t you agree? When a pronoun is substituted for a noun that occurs elsewhere in the sentence, the noun is called the antecedent. After Becky found herself stranded on Grammar Island, she vowed to get off. (Becky = antecedent, she = pronoun). Finding herself stranded on Grammar Island, Becky vowed to get off. (Becky = antecedent, herself = pronoun). The pronoun and antecedent always have to agree with one another. This occurs when both the pronoun and its antecedent have the same number and gender. Number: A wolf has its own language. Wolves have their own language. A lawyer represents his or her clients. Lawyers represent their clients. Gender: The boy and his sister (masculine) The girl and her brother (feminine) The garden and its weeds (neuter) When pronouns are joined by or or nor, they agree with the nearest antecedent. Neither the president nor the senators had announced their decision. Did Mark or Gordon lose his enthusiasm? 4 In many cases, a single noun may be used to describe a group of individuals (class, team, band, etc.). If the individuals in these groups are working as one, the pronoun is singular. The choir is writing its own music. Through its efforts and diligence, the class will master the intricacies of pronoun antecedent agreement. Because pronouns are such a natural part of our language, they are used frequently in our writing. The most important thing to remember, though, is to not over-use pronouns. Remember, our writing cannot succeed unless our reader knows what we are talking about. Always be sure that the relationship between the pronoun and its antecedent is clear and unmistakable. Topic 3: linking and action verbs and subject/predicate agreement Verbs: words that express action or otherwise help to make a statement Action verbs: express an action (bring, say, shout, ponder, trust, jump, hurl…) ______________________________________________________________ Linking verbs: tell something about the subject (be, am, are, is, was, were, have, has, had, having, will, would, can, could, shall, should, may, might, must, appear, become, feel, grow, look, seem…) As a group, make a list of ten action verbs, not including the ones listed above. Even though both types of verbs are used in writing, in many instances, action verbs are considered stronger or more desirable. They are words that contain more life and energy; they tell more about your subject by bringing him, her, or it to life. Joe was happy. OR Joe grinned from ear to ear. Please re-write the following sentences, replacing the linking verbs with stronger action verbs that illustrate the main idea rather than telling. Example: The ugly, purple sunglasses were too big for Bill. The ugly, purple sunglasses slid off of Bill’s face. 1. Alberta’s legs are long. 2. Keith’s chicken pox were red and swollen. 3. Instead of ignoring the screaming music from across the street, Old Mrs. Grouch got mad. 4. That dog is a genius! 5 Verbs are essential to the life of a paper. Even action verbs can be replaced by more lively action verbs to spice up your writing and make it more descriptive. Revise each of the following sentences by thinking of new, lively verbs to substitute for the underlined words. 1. Cham opened the door and told Tom to hurry up. 2. Mother suddenly stepped on the brakes and the car stopped. 3. He frowned as I sang loudly the words to our alma mater. 4. She lay down on her bed and began to cry. Subject Predicate Agreement: Just as pronouns must agree with their antecedent, subjects must also agree with their predicate. Subject: the topic of the sentence—what is being discussed (usually a noun) Predicate: the verb If the subject is singular, the verb must be singular (have an s). If the subject is plural, the verb must be plural (no s). The car in the lot looks new. [Car and looks are both singular.] The cars in the lot look shabby. [Cars and look are both plural.] The rhythm of the pounding waves is calming. Her salary, together with tips, is just enough to live on. Tips, together with her salary, are just enough to live on. Subjects joined by and usually take a plural verb because you are talking about a plural number of subjects. Writing on a legal pad and writing with a computer are not the same at all. [plural subject (2 of them) = plural verb]. A compound subject that refers to a single person or thing takes on a singular verb. Red beans and rice is the specialty of the house. [singular subject (one special) = singular verb]. If the sentence contains two subjects joined by or/nor, the verb must agree with the nearest subject. The provost or the dean usually presides at the meeting. Neither the car nor the motorcycle is for sale. Either her accountant or her lawyer has the will. 6 HINT: The easiest way to tell whether a linking verb is singular or plural is to put it beside a pronoun: he is he are we are we is We know that he is singular, and because is sounds right, is, too, is singular. We know that we is plural, and because are sounds right, are too is singular. Just like pronoun/antecedent agreement, the predicate agrees with the nearest subject when one subject is singular and the other is plural. Neither the basket nor the apples were expensive. Remember, not Neither the apples nor the basket was expensive. all subjects that end in –s are plural. The news is encouraging. [singular subject, singular predicate]. Niagara Falls is breathtaking. Linguistics is fascinating. Topic 4: adjectives, articles, and adverbs Adjectives: modify (describe) nouns and pronouns ASK! And the adjectives will answer!!! Ask what kind: blue ink Ask which one: old friends this park gusty winds these papers Ask how many: twenty-five kilometers two men several apples that house HINT: The sky was cloudy. [cloudy sky] Adjectives often follow linking verbs. That joke is clever. [clever joke] They look happy. [happy people?] She is strong. [strong female] Michelle was stuck in the 80’s and could not bear to part with her big, ratted hair-do. [big hair-do, ratted hair-do] Articles: words used to signal nouns (these are specialized adjectives) a (signals nouns beginning with consonant sounds) an (signals nouns beginning with vowel sounds) the (signal a specific noun) Adverbs: modify verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs. Adverbs that modify verbs describe the action. We walked quietly. [How did we walk?] We arrived later. [When did we arrive?] We walked home. [Where did we walk?] We are accustomed to using articles in language, and they fall naturally into our writing. Sometimes, however, we forget to write these tiny words, and it results in confusion for the reader. So much of writing is attention to detail… HINT: They usually (but not always) end in –ly. Adverbs tell too!! Ask… How When Where To what extent 7 Adverbs modify adjectives. An immensely long wagon train attempted an unprecedented pilgrimage to the moon. Noun = wagon train. What kind of a wagon train? Long = adjective. How long? Immensely = adverb Oxen, mules, and leprechauns were used to pull unusually large wagons. Noun = wagons. What kind of wagons? Large = adjective. How large? Unusually = adverb The trail through the Milky Way was especially hazardous. Noun = trail. What kind of trail? Hazardous = adjective. How hazardous? Especially = adverb Adverbs modify other adverbs. The guide spoke too slowly. Verb = spoke. How did he speak? Slowly = adverb. How slowly? Too = adverb He ate very quickly, though. Verb = ate. How did he eat? Quickly = adverb. How quickly? Very = adverb Words like: Always Never Sometimes Not Usually Too There Here Very are always ADVERBS! Even though adverbs are widely used and commonly accepted in our language, they can often make our writing weak. Instead of using adverbs to describe a verb, choose a descriptive verb that vividly and accurately conveys your message by itself! Please re-write the following sentences, omitting adverbs and making the message pop! Remember, two good ways to do this is to use descriptive action verbs and/or figurative language. 1. He walked slowly to his desk. 2. The snake quickly grabbed its prey. 3. The moderately hard rainfall, dripped through the hole in my tent. 4. Beatlejuice sang loudly. 5. Edward Scissor Hands talked sneakily about his next scheme. Topic 5: prepositions Prepositions: show the relationship of a noun or a pronoun to some other word in the sentence A preposition always introduces a phrase; these phrases are known as prepositional phrases. To be a preposition, the word must be followed by a noun or pronoun, which is called the object of the preposition. Prepositions can only exist as part of a phrase. Chances are that the word is used as an adverb if it’s not part of a phrase. Commonly used prepositions: aboard amid about among above around across at after before against behind along below inside onto into outside like over near past of since off through beneath beside besides between beyond but (meaning except) for toward under underneath until up upon by concerning (meaning about) down during Hint: except -a phrase from does not in contain a within predicate without -a phrase is with a fragment on to (when followed by verb) 8 I rode beyond the trees, past the meadow, and into the river. The park near the river is quiet; many people find solace sitting beneath its sycamores. Not only do prepositional phrases show the relationship between a noun or pronoun and some other word in the sentence, they can also be omitted completely from the sentence without turning it into a fragment. Additionally, it is useful to be able to spot prepositional phrases in writing because it is then easier to find the subject and predicate. Topic 6: clauses Clauses Independent: contains a subject, predicate, and complete thought and can stand alone. Dependent (subordinating): does not express a complete thought and cannot stand by itself All sentences are independent clauses. Independent clauses All fragments are dependent clauses The outfielders were missing easy fly balls. The infielders were throwing wildly. The outfielders were missing easy fly balls, and the infielders were throwing wildly. After racing to the store to buy ice-cream, Jon plopped down on the concrete and devoured his treat. The woman who spoke to our class yesterday informed us of financial aide for college applicants. She said that many students are eligible for scholarships. Some scholarships are still available because no students have applied for them. Dependent clauses The outfielders were. Throwing wildly. After racing to the store to buy ice-cream. Who spoke to our class yesterday. That many students are eligible for scholarships. Because no students have applied for them. Some dependent clauses are more difficult to spot because they might have a subject and a predicate; however, if we look closely, it soon becomes obvious that they cannot stand alone as a complete thought. They leave us expecting to hear more information. These phrases often begin with subordinating conjunctions, such as if, when, although, since, and because Topic 7: conjunctions Conjunctions: connect ideas together; these ideas could be a word, a phrase, or a clause Coordinating conjunctions But Or Subordinating conjunctions Yet after before For although if And as in order that Nor as if since So as long as so that as soon as than because though that unless until when whenever where wherever while Correlative conjunctions either…or neither…nor both…and whether…or not only…but also 9 Coordinating conjunctions join equal parts of a sentence together or groups of words. Jack is sick, or he is in love. Gloria worked as a translator last summer, for she speaks both Crow and English. Emily thought hard, but she still was not sure if she wanted cheesy broccoli or cream of mushroom soup. Subordinating conjunctions connect a dependent (subordinate) clause with an independent clause (the main idea of the sentence). Although the day was warm, there were no birds in the sky. I will miss the pow-wow if I go home this weekend. When subordinating clauses appear in the middle of the sentence, they do not require a comma. When they introduce a dependent clause that needs to be separated from the main independent clause, a comma is placed at the end of the dependent clause. When coordinating conjunctions join two independent clauses (complete sentences), the conjunction is preceded by a comma. When they simply join two words or ideas (incomplete sentences), the comma is omitted. Correlative conjunctions connect words or groups of words. Both dogs and cats get fleas. Joan not only plays the piano but also sings in the choir. Gloria worked as a translator last summer, for she speaks both Crow and English. When correlative conjunctions join words the pair must stay complete. No comma will be used. Please compose two sentences utilizing coordinating conjunctions, two sentences using subordinating conjunctions, and two sentences using correlative conjunctions. Topic 7 continued: colons and semicolons : Colons: indicate that the writer is about to give an explanation, summary, series, or quotation. A complete sentence (independent clause) must exist in front of the colon! I am always seeking the answer to the eternal question: how can I keep the jelly from seeping through my bread on my PB&J sandwich? They were concerned mainly about speed: not only did they want a very fast computer but they also had to have a very fast Internet connection. I was finally confronted with what I had dreaded for months: semester exams. There were three winners: Alex, Vanna, and Jack. 10 Please compose two sentences using colons. Colons are also used… Properly used colons are quite impressive in writing: they show that you know what you are doing and give your writing a unique movement. However, they should also be used sparingly so that they don’t lose their power and effectiveness. Between titles and subtitles: Kathy just read Women’s Ways of Knowing: The Development of Self Voice, and Mind. In scriptural references: He quoted from Psalms 3:5. In citing plays: Act 1, Scene 3, Lines 13-17 would be shortened to1:3:13-17 Following the salutation of a business letter and the headings of a memo: Dear Dr. Horner: To: From: In time references: We are to be there by 11:30 A.M. ; Semicolons have two main functions. 1. Semicolons connect independent clauses when the thoughts of both are very closely related. This creates a compound sentence. A semicolon essentially takes the place of a comma plus one of the coordinating conjunctions. a) Everyone else in my family excels in a particular sport; I seem to be the only exception. Use this b) Mary Ellen was elected president of the Honor Society; she truly deserved that recognition. type in c) Researchers now think that language functions as a kind of index for memories; events that occurred the before we acquired language apparently are not indexed, and so we cannot retrieve those memories at challenge will. d) Some glaciers are melting; for example, the Athabascan glacier has retreated a thousand feet in the last fifty years. e) Like jazz, hip-hop is a uniquely American form of music; indeed it can be said that both forms are fundamentally African American. 2. Semicolons separate items in a series that already contain commas a) To survive, mountain lions need a large range area; a steady supply of deer, skunks, raccoons, foxes, and opossums; and plenty of room to mate and raise litters. b) There are four home stations for the Goodyear blimps: Long Beach, California; Houston, Texas; Miami, Florida; and Rome, Italy. c) You may turn in the reports on Thursday, September 14; Friday, September 15; or Monday, September 1. A complete sentence (independent clause) must exist on both sides of a semicolon! Like colons, properly used semicolons are also quite impressive in writing. They, too, should be used sparingly. Please compose two sentences using semicolons. 11 Topic 8: correcting sentence errors Error 1 Fragments: an incomplete sentence, lacking either a subject, predicate, or complete thought Phrases are fragments. Dependent clauses are also fragments. Key Fragment=frag Comma Splice=CS Run-on=RO Magazines often include articles about alternative medicine. Usually covering both the benefits and the drawbacks of particular methods. Occasionally, alternative medical treatment includes hypnosis. The placement of a patient into a sleeplike state. Most patients, however, respond better when in a normal state of consciousness. According to most psychiatrists. Most people can be hypnotized easily. Although the depth of the trance for each person varies greatly. Fragment spotting 1. Read the paragraph backwards, sentence by sentence. When sentences are not in a rational order, it is easy to spot gaps in meaning. 2. Locate the essential parts of a sentence, i.e. subject, Fragment correcting predicate, and complete thought. Choose the best one for your specific fragment 3. Put any sentence you think might be a fragment into needs! this frame: They do not understand the idea that 1. Add the missing part (subject, predicate, ___________. Only a full sentence will make sense in complete idea). this frame. If a test sentence, other than an imperative 2. Join the fragment to a nearby independent (a sentence giving a command), does not fit into the clause. frame, it is a fragment. 4. Rewrite any sentence you think might be a fragment as a yes/no question. Only full sentences can be written this way. Test sentence: Which is made from the leaves of the foxglove plant. Test: Is which made from the leaves of the foxglove plant? [The question does not make sense; therefore, the test sentence is a fragment.] Error 2 Comma splice: two independent clauses (complete sentences) joined by a comma Most stockholders favored the merger, the management did not. Comma splice correcting Choose the best one for your comma splice needs!! 1. Change the comma into a semicolon. A semicolon can join two independent clauses that are closely related; a semicolon generally signals addition or contrast. The new store opened this morning; the owners greeted everyone at the door. 2. Change the comma into a period with the next word capitalized (make two sentences). Most stockholders favored the merger. The management did not. 3. Add a conjunction of some kind (BOYFANS or subordinating conjunctions). The new store opened this morning, and the owners greeted everyone at the door. 12 Error 3 Run-on: two independent clauses run together with no punctuation at all (a comma splice without the comma or any other punctuation) He smelled the raw smell he touched the smooth, round pebbles. I was not making up a story when I said the dog ate my homework he just went crazy. Run-on correcting Use the same methods as were used in correcting comma splices, choosing the best method for the sentences. 1. Divide the independent clauses with a semicolon. 2. Make two sentences. 3. Add a conjunction. Run-on and Comma Splice Spotting 1. Locate a sentence you are unsure about. Put the sentence in this frame: They do not understand the idea that ______________. Only complete sentences will make sense in this frame. If only part of a test sentence fits into the frame, you have probably located a comma splice or a run-on. Test sentence: Male proboscis monkeys have oddly shaped large nose, they also have unusual webbed paws Test: They do not understand the idea that male proboscis monkeys have oddly shaped large noses, they also have unusual webbed paws. [The sentence does not make sense because there are two sentences completing the frame, and the reader feels like the question (They do no understand…) should also be asked twice (once for each sentence). Therefore, the sentence needs to be revised.] 2. Locate a sentence you are unsure about. Try to rewrite it as a question with a yes or no answer. If only part of the sentence makes sense, you have likely found a comma splice or run-on. Test sentence: Meercats use their claws to forage for food they frequently prey on scorpions. Test: Do meercats use their claws to forage for food they frequently prey on scorpions? [The sentence should be revised because the question does not make sense.] Topic 9: sentence modes Sentences: the modes of discourse S C Cx 1. Simple: a sentence with only one independent clause The Hudson is a historic waterway. I like chips. I like to eat chips on historic waterways. In the stands at half time, we talked with friends from another school about our teams’ prospects for the season. She played basketball and won a scholarship. 2. Compound: a sentence with two or more independent clauses, but no dependent clauses (often joined together by BOYFANS) A strange dog chased us, but the owner came to our rescue. The film is long, but it is suspenseful, and the time passes quickly. She played basketball, and she won a scholarship. 3. Complex: a sentence with one independent clauses and at least one dependent clause. As night fell, the storm drew nigh. Because he was known for architectural ornamentation, no one predicted that the house he designed for himself would be so plain. 13 4. Compound-complex: a sentence with at least two independent clauses and at least one dependent clause Because it had snowed hard in October that year, the ski resorts opened early, and the skiers and snowboarders flocked to them. While he liked the white room, he felt that it would be interesting if it were painted fluorescent green, so Philip followed his instinct. Becky picked the flowers, and even though the sun beat down upon her, Robin pulled weeds. CCx When writing, it is important to utilize all of the modes of discourse. Short sentences followed by long sentences with varying structures make your writing dynamic and easy to read. Don’t be afraid to experiment with sentence structure! Identify the following sentences as simple, compound, complex, or compoundcomplex. With the goal of crossing the North Pole alone, Borge Ousland started his 1,240 mile trek on March 3, 2001. Although Ousland had prepared for the most grueling triathlon imaginable, he had no way of predicting what he would have to endure. One night, huge chunks of ice forced upward from the packed surface almost destroyed his camp, and the next morning he had to search hard for snow that he could melt into fresh water. About a week into his trip, Ousland’s sledge started to break down. Ousland considered canceling his trip at that point, but instead he steeled himself and ordered a new sledge, which did not arrive until several days later. Ousland also had to swim across leads, shoot at approaching polar bears, and endure the pain of frostbite and strained tendons. Despite all the misery, Ousland continually took cues from his surroundings. Whenever he came to a lead, he asked himself what a polar bear would do. When crossing treacherous pack ice, he thought as a fox would, making each step count. Ousland said the key to surviving such a rigorous journey was perseverance. Please create and label at least one original example of each mode: simple, compound, complex, compound-complex. Topic 10: period, question mark, exclamation point, dash, parentheses, and ellipses Periods . Question marks ? 1. Periods mark the end of a declarative sentence or a mildly imperative one. Respect the environment. [mildly imperative sentence] Global warming is a serious problem. [declarative sentence] Marks the end of an interrogative sentence. A question mark follows a direct question. 2. Periods follow some abbreviations. Dr. Jr. A.M. vs. etc. St. Ave. Rd. Mrs. Mont. Note: when addressing letters, we do not use periods after writing the state abbreviations. We use the postal system’s abbreviations, i.e. MT. (The period following MT is there because it is the end of a sentence, not because of the abbreviation .) Just where is Waldo? Know the four types of sentences. 1) Declarative: 2) Interrogative: 3) Imperative: 4) Exclamatory: Would you pass me the salt? Do you have any Gray Pupon? Exclamation points ! 1) Shows strong feeling. You only need one. 2) Used after an interjection (a short word with feeling) 3) Marks the end of a strongly imperative sentence. Wow! That was the best movie I’ve ever seen! “Get off the road!” he yelled. The exclamation point should be used very sparingly. Overuse diminishes its impact when you really need it. 14 Dashes — Dashes look like long hyphens (a hyphen is used to join compound words) and can be created with a word processing program by typing two hyphens with no spaces before, between, or after them. The program will usually convert your dashes to hyphens automatically. They signal highly specific meanings, however, so be sure to not overuse them. A complete sentence (independent clause) must exist somewhere with a dash! 1. A dash marks a sudden break in thought or an interruption in dialogue I was awed by the almost superhuman effort Stonehenge represents—but who wouldn’t be? “All I wanted to know was—” “I said go to your room NOW!” my mother shouted over me. 2. A dash sets off a parenthetical element for emphasis or (if it contains commas) for clarity. In many smaller cities of this nation, cable television operators—with the connivance of local government—have a virtual monopoly. The trail down into the Grand Canyon—steep, narrow, winding, and lacking in guard rails—is treacherous. 3. A dash occurs after an introductory list or series. Eager, determined to succeed, and scared to death—all of these describe Beth’s emotions the first day on the job. ( ) Parentheses Purpose one: set off nonessential information I accepted his explanation (up to a point) and set out to enjoy the evening. Again, parentheses must be used sparingly; the elements they enclose should still read smoothly in the sentence as a whole. Purpose two: enclose numbers or letters used for lists. In general, a sound argument contains (1) a clear statement of its point placed near the beginning and (2) a refutation of opposing positions, usually right after the point statement. Purpose three: indicate an acronym. Always spell out the words the first time…then you may use the acronym. The Search for Extraterrestrial Intelligence (SETI) uses the Very Large Array (VLA) outside Socorro, New Mexico, to scan the sky. SETI is funded by alien-believers. A complete sentence (independent clause) must exist somewhere with parentheses! Ellipsis … 1. Mark an omission within a quoted passage Although cacao flowers are small, as Patricia Gadsby notes, “once pollinated…they’ll make pulpfilled pods almost the size of rugby balls.” 2. Mark a reflective pause or a hesitation Keith saw four menacing youths coming toward him…and ran. Please note that there are only three periods. A complete sentence (independent clause) must exist somewhere with ellipsis! 15 Topic 11: apostrophes, quotation marks, and underline or italics Apostrophes ‘ ’ 1. Mark omissions in contractions, numbers, or words mimicking speech, going wherever letters have been omitted. Do not = don’t they will = they’ll you all = y’all Singing = singin’ class of 2006 = class of ’06 reading = readin’ 2. Indicate ownership or some other relationship Fumi’s computer the trees’ branches Einstein’s ideas driver’s license Linda’s sister Mona Lisa’s smile 3. Indicates dialogue in quoted material “The ticket seller said, ‘Sorry, but the show is sold out for this evening.’ Therefore, I ended up watching The Voice at home.” Quotation marks Confusion often arises when the writer is trying to decide if they need to put an ’s or and s’ at the end of a possessive. An s’ is used at the end of a plural word when an –s was already added to make the word plural. Trees’s branches looks funny and is hard to read, so we just drop the final –s and the result is trees’ branches. On plurals that do not require an –s to make them plural, we simply add an ’s (geese’s) because there are no double –s’s, so there is no confusion. Singular words always have an ’s. “ ” 1. Enclose a direct quotation or dialogue “Like branding steers or embalming the dead,” writes David Sedaris, “teaching was a profession I had never seriously considered.” “Cleaning the gutters is the worst part of my day,” grumbled Joe. Writer’s note: Periods or commas go inside quotation marks. If the descriptor is last use a comma to end the quote and a period to end the sentence. Question marks and exclamation points only go inside quotation marks when they are a part of the quoted material. In this case, a period follows the closing quotation mark and marks the end of the sentence. 2. Enclose titles of short works, such as short poems, songs, short stories, magazine or journal articles, etc. “The Most Dangerous Game” is a startling short story most people never forget. Underlines OR Italics: Indicate the title of a long work, such as a book, epic poem, journal, magazine, etc. Do not use both at the same time. Use italics when typing, but use underline when handwriting to indicate a title. My favorite book, The Fountainhead, is more than five hundred pages long. An easy way to decide if a title needs to be underlined or placed in quotations is to do the “Would it be printed by itself?” test. If the work is long enough that it would be an entire book by itself, it is underlined/italicized. Writing reminders: Do not use personal pronouns (I, you, we) or contractions (can’t, don’t) in formal writing. Be conscious of the words you choose; try to make them pop! Proof-read, proof-read, proof-read. Among other things, look for holes in logic or organization. A true writer is never satisfied with a draft but is constantly revising. Numbers: (1) Spell out one through nine and any number that begins a sentence. (2) Hyphenate twentyone through ninety-nine. (3) If one of these numbers is followed by a word such as hundred, thousand, or million, spell that word out, too. (4) Use a numeral for any other number unless it begins a sentence. Sources: Hodges’ Harbrace Handbook, fifteen edition; English Grammar and Composition, fourth course 16