Download Paragraphs: complete units of organized and rational thoughts and

Grammar Island Survival Guide
Topic 1: paragraphs
In writing, the most important things to consider are PURPOSE and AUDIENCE.
These ultimately dictate what you say, how you say it, and even the order in which you say it.
A) There are three major ways that details in a paragraph can be organized.
*There are four types of writing that are determined by the PURPOSE for writing. Each purpose is best suited to
the organizational pattern it is listed under.
a) Chronologically: in the order in which it happens
*Purpose: Telling a story--NARRATIVE
When writing a narrative, it is important to provide supporting details to develop the characters and
setting you are telling about. Narrative writing often includes dialogue and should also use elements of
description to fully engage the reader.
b) Spatially: reader’s focus is oriented from right to left, near to far, top to bottom, and so on.
*Purpose: Describing something--DESCRIPTIVE
When writing description, focus on the five senses to fully support your writing; this really helps the
reader become a part of your writing and allows him to “be” there.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
c) Emphatically: information is arranged in order of importance, usually from least important to most
important
*Purpose: Explaining or reporting on a topic—INFORMATIVE/EXPLANATORY
Convincing the reader by supporting a claim—PERSUASIVE ARGUMENTATION
In informative/explanatory and persuasive argumentation writing, your reader is best served by a very
focused style of writing. Organization is paramount to successful writing in these purposes: use topic
sentences, transitions, and strong supporting details, wrapped up by a conclusion.
Before you begin writing, always determine what type of writing would best respond to the task.
Paragraphs: complete units of organized and rational thoughts and/or information
Components of a paragraph:
Green 1. Topic sentence: usually appears at the beginning of a paragraph
states and focuses on the main idea of a paragraph
Yellow 2. Transitions: a shift from one key idea to another; connect reasons, details, or facts about the topic
Red
3. Supporting Material: reasons, details, or facts that develop, clarify, further explain the yellow which
supports the topic sentence; the biggest part of the paragraph
Green 4. Conclusion: sums up the paragraph, convinces readers of your position, challenges readers to think about
the issue, encourages readers to take action
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No matter what the purpose for writing, all paragraphs should be:
--unified: every sentence in the paragraph should relate to a single main idea
--coherent: all ideas in the paragraph should progress logically and smoothly from one sentence to another
--well-developed: the paragraph should contain all of the information the reader needs to make connections
between the writer’s ideas and understand the material; pretend your reader is an idiot
1. In a unified paragraph, every sentence relates to the main idea; unity is violated when something unrelated to the
main idea appears.
In the following paragraph, please identify the topic sentence and any transitions that the author uses. Also, circle the
violation of unity.
New York has a museum to suit almost any taste. The Metropolitan Museum and the Museum of Modern Art are
famous for their art collections. Other important collections of art can be found at the Frick, Guggenheim, and
Whitney Museums. Visitors interested in the natural sciences will enjoy the Museum of Natural History. Those
interested in American history should visit the Museum of the City of New York. Getting around the city to visit the
museums is easy once you have mastered the subway system. Part of Ellis Island has become a museum devoted to
the history of immigration. Exhibits devoted to social and cultural history can also be found at the Jewish Museum
and the Asia Society.
2. In a coherent paragraph, the relationship among the ideas is clear and meaningful (unified), and the progression
from one sentence to the next is easy for readers to follow.
The following sentences have unity, but lack coherence. Please rearrange the sentences in a reader-friendly fashion.
Hint: Find the topic sentence first, and then consider the logical progression of events in this situation.
The inside of the refrigerator was covered with black mold, and it smelled as if something had been rotting in
there for years.
I put new paper down on all the shelves, and my roommate took care of lining the drawers.
The stove was as dirty as the refrigerator.
When we moved into our new apartment, we found that the kitchen was in horrible shape.
We had to scrub the walls with a wire brush and plenty of Lysol to get rid of the grease.
The previous tenant had left behind lots of junk that we had to get rid of.
All the drawers and cabinets had to be washed.
2
You can use this outline to draft your first challenge.
Topic Sentences: Write two topic sentences using different strategies.
A.
B.
Transitions: List the transitions that would work in a paragraph based on
each topic sentence you just wrote.
A.
B.
C.
Supporting Materials: Circle your best topic sentence and jot down three
reasons/details/facts to support it.
A.
B.
C.
Conclusions: Write a conclusion sentence for the topic sentence you chose to
write supporting materials for.
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Topic 2: nouns, pronouns, and pronoun/antecedent agreement
Noun: person,
place, thing, or idea
Proper nouns: specific names (Bill Gates, Microsoft Corporations, The White House, Elm
Street, Huntley Project High School, Miss Ickes).
Common nouns: refer to any member of a class or category (man, software company, house,
street, school, teacher).
FOR THIS UNIT WE WILL ALWAYS COUNT PERSONAL PRONOUNS AS PRONOUNS.
Personal pronouns: I, my, mine, me, you, your, yours, he, his, him, she, her, hers, it, its, we,
Pronouns: take the
our, ours, us, you, your, yours, they, their, theirs, them
place of a
Relative pronouns: who, whom, whose, which, that
previously
Interrogative pronouns (used in questions): Who…? Whose…? What…? Whom…? Which…?
mentioned noun
Demonstrative pronouns (used to point out a specific person or thing): this, that, these, those
Indefinite pronouns (not referring to a definite person or thing): all, another, any, anybody,
anyone, anything, both, each, either, everybody, everyone, everything, few, many, more, most, much, neither, nobody,
none, no one, one, other, several, some, somebody, someone, such
Reflexive pronouns: myself, yourself, himself, herself, itself, ourselves, yourselves, themselves
Please circle the nouns and underline the pronouns in the following paragraph. There are 25 pronouns and 16 nouns.
Everybody in my family likes to go camping, but few of us enjoy the experience more than I do. Last summer,
several of my cousins and I stayed at a rustic camp in the mountains, which are not far from our hometown. At camp we
all learned how to build a campfire and how to keep it going. A group of us even went beyond that—we learned to cook
meals over the open fire. One of our counselors showed those who were interested how to cook simple meals. Each of his
recipes was easy to follow, and everyone ate everything in sight. Anything cooked over an open fire tastes good, don’t
you agree?
When a pronoun is substituted for a noun that occurs elsewhere in the sentence, the noun is called the antecedent.
After Becky found herself stranded on Grammar Island, she vowed to get off. (Becky = antecedent, she = pronoun).
Finding herself stranded on Grammar Island, Becky vowed to get off. (Becky = antecedent, herself = pronoun).
The pronoun and antecedent always have to agree with one another.
This occurs when both the pronoun and its antecedent have the same number and gender.
Number:
A wolf has its own language.
Wolves have their own language.
A lawyer represents his or her clients.
Lawyers represent their clients.
Gender:
The boy and his sister (masculine)
The girl and her brother (feminine)
The garden and its weeds (neuter)
When pronouns are joined by or or nor, they agree with the nearest antecedent.
Neither the president nor the senators had announced their decision.
Did Mark or Gordon lose his enthusiasm?
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In many cases, a single noun may be used to describe a group of individuals (class, team, band, etc.). If the
individuals in these groups are working as one, the pronoun is singular.
The choir is writing its own music.
Through its efforts and diligence, the class will master the intricacies of pronoun antecedent agreement.
Because pronouns are such a natural part of our language, they are used frequently in our writing. The
most important thing to remember, though, is to not over-use pronouns. Remember, our writing cannot
succeed unless our reader knows what we are talking about. Always be sure that the relationship between
the pronoun and its antecedent is clear and unmistakable.
Topic 3: linking and action verbs and subject/predicate agreement
Verbs: words that express
action or otherwise help to
make a statement
Action verbs: express an action (bring, say, shout, ponder, trust, jump, hurl…)
______________________________________________________________
Linking verbs: tell something about the subject (be, am, are, is, was, were,
have, has, had, having, will, would, can, could, shall, should, may, might,
must, appear, become, feel, grow, look, seem…)
As a group, make a list of ten action verbs, not including the ones listed above.
Even though both types of verbs are used in writing, in many instances, action verbs are considered stronger or
more desirable. They are words that contain more life and energy; they tell more about your subject by
bringing him, her, or it to life.
Joe was happy.
OR
Joe grinned from ear to ear.
Please re-write the following sentences, replacing the linking verbs with stronger action verbs that illustrate the
main idea rather than telling.
Example: The ugly, purple sunglasses were too big for Bill.
The ugly, purple sunglasses slid off of Bill’s face.
1. Alberta’s legs are long.
2. Keith’s chicken pox were red and swollen.
3. Instead of ignoring the screaming music from across the street, Old Mrs. Grouch got mad.
4. That dog is a genius!
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Verbs are essential to the life of a paper. Even action verbs can be replaced by more lively action verbs to spice
up your writing and make it more descriptive.
Revise each of the following sentences by thinking of new, lively verbs to substitute for the underlined words.
1. Cham opened the door and told Tom to hurry up.
2. Mother suddenly stepped on the brakes and the car stopped.
3. He frowned as I sang loudly the words to our alma mater.
4. She lay down on her bed and began to cry.
Subject Predicate Agreement:
Just as pronouns must agree with their
antecedent, subjects must also agree with
their predicate.
Subject: the topic of the sentence—what is
being discussed (usually a noun)
Predicate: the verb
If the subject is singular, the
verb must be singular (have an
s).
If the subject is plural, the verb
must be plural (no s).
The car in the lot looks new. [Car and looks are both singular.]
The cars in the lot look shabby. [Cars and look are both plural.]
The rhythm of the pounding waves is calming.
Her salary, together with tips, is just enough to live on.
Tips, together with her salary, are just enough to live on.
Subjects joined by and usually take a plural verb because you are talking about a plural number of subjects.
Writing on a legal pad and writing with a computer are not the same at all. [plural subject (2 of them) = plural verb].
A compound
subject that refers to a single person or thing takes on a singular verb.
Red beans and rice is the specialty of the house. [singular subject (one special) = singular verb].
If the sentence contains two subjects joined by or/nor, the verb must agree with the nearest subject.
The provost or the dean usually presides at the meeting.
Neither the car nor the motorcycle is for sale.
Either her accountant or her lawyer has the will.
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HINT: The easiest way to tell whether a linking verb is singular or plural is to put it beside a pronoun:
he is
he are
we are
we is
We know that he is singular, and because
is sounds right, is, too, is singular.
We know that we is plural, and
because are sounds right, are too is singular.
Just like pronoun/antecedent agreement, the predicate
agrees with the nearest subject when one
subject is singular and the other is plural.
Neither the basket nor the apples were expensive.
Remember, not
Neither the apples nor the basket was expensive.
all subjects that end in –s are plural.
The news is encouraging. [singular subject, singular predicate].
Niagara Falls is breathtaking.
Linguistics is fascinating.
Topic 4: adjectives, articles, and adverbs
Adjectives: modify (describe) nouns and pronouns
ASK! And the adjectives will answer!!!
Ask what kind:
blue ink
Ask which one:
old friends
this park
gusty winds
these papers
Ask how many:
twenty-five kilometers
two men
several apples
that house
HINT:
The sky was cloudy. [cloudy sky]
Adjectives often follow linking verbs.
That joke is clever. [clever joke]
They look happy. [happy people?]
She is strong. [strong female]
Michelle was stuck in the 80’s and could not bear to part with her big, ratted hair-do. [big hair-do, ratted hair-do]
Articles: words used to signal nouns (these are specialized
adjectives)
a (signals nouns beginning with consonant sounds)
an (signals nouns beginning with vowel sounds)
the (signal a specific noun)
Adverbs: modify verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs.
Adverbs that modify verbs describe the action.
We walked quietly. [How did we walk?]
We arrived later. [When did we arrive?]
We walked home. [Where did we walk?]
We are accustomed to using articles in
language, and they fall naturally into our
writing. Sometimes, however, we forget to
write these tiny words, and it results in
confusion for the reader. So much of
writing is attention to detail…
HINT: They usually (but not always) end in –ly.
Adverbs tell too!! Ask…
How
When
Where
To what extent
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Adverbs modify adjectives.
An immensely long wagon train attempted an unprecedented pilgrimage to the moon.
Noun = wagon train. What kind of a wagon train? Long = adjective. How long? Immensely = adverb
Oxen, mules, and leprechauns were used to pull unusually large wagons.
Noun = wagons. What kind of wagons? Large = adjective. How large? Unusually = adverb
The trail through the Milky Way was especially hazardous.
Noun = trail. What kind of trail? Hazardous = adjective. How hazardous? Especially = adverb
Adverbs modify other adverbs.
The guide spoke too slowly.
Verb = spoke. How did he speak? Slowly = adverb. How slowly? Too = adverb
He ate very quickly, though.
Verb = ate. How did he eat? Quickly = adverb. How quickly? Very = adverb
Words like:
Always
Never
Sometimes
Not
Usually
Too
There
Here
Very
are always
ADVERBS!
Even though adverbs are widely used and commonly accepted in our language, they can often make our writing
weak. Instead of using adverbs to describe a verb, choose a descriptive verb that vividly and accurately conveys
your message by itself!
Please re-write the following sentences, omitting adverbs and making the message pop! Remember, two good ways to do
this is to use descriptive action verbs and/or figurative language.
1. He walked slowly to his desk.
2. The snake quickly grabbed its prey.
3. The moderately hard rainfall, dripped through the hole in my tent.
4. Beatlejuice sang loudly.
5. Edward Scissor Hands talked sneakily about his next scheme.
Topic 5: prepositions
Prepositions: show the relationship of a noun or a pronoun to some other word in the sentence
A preposition always introduces a phrase; these phrases are known as prepositional phrases.
To be a preposition, the word must be followed by a noun or pronoun, which is called the object of the preposition.
Prepositions can only exist as part of a phrase. Chances are that the word is used as an adverb if it’s not part of a phrase.
Commonly used prepositions:
aboard
amid
about
among
above
around
across
at
after
before
against
behind
along
below
inside
onto
into
outside
like
over
near
past
of
since
off
through
beneath
beside
besides
between
beyond
but (meaning except)
for
toward
under
underneath
until
up
upon
by
concerning (meaning about)
down
during
Hint:
except
-a phrase
from
does not
in
contain a
within
predicate
without
-a phrase is
with
a fragment
on
to (when followed by verb)
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I rode beyond the trees, past the meadow, and into the river.
The park near the river is quiet; many people find solace sitting beneath its sycamores.
Not only do prepositional phrases show the relationship between a noun or pronoun and some other word in the sentence,
they can also be omitted completely from the sentence without turning it into a fragment. Additionally, it is useful to be
able to spot prepositional phrases in writing because it is then easier to find the subject and predicate.
Topic 6: clauses
Clauses
Independent: contains a subject, predicate, and complete thought and can stand alone.
Dependent (subordinating): does not express a complete thought and cannot stand by
itself
All sentences are independent clauses.
Independent clauses
All fragments are dependent clauses
The outfielders were missing easy fly balls.
The infielders were throwing wildly.
The outfielders were missing easy fly balls, and the infielders were throwing wildly.
After racing to the store to buy ice-cream, Jon plopped down on the concrete and devoured his treat.
The woman who spoke to our class yesterday informed us of financial aide for college applicants.
She said that many students are eligible for scholarships.
Some scholarships are still available because no students have applied for them.
Dependent clauses
The outfielders were.
Throwing wildly.
After racing to the store to buy ice-cream.
Who spoke to our class yesterday.
That many students are eligible for scholarships.
Because no students have applied for them.
Some dependent clauses are more difficult to
spot because they might have a subject and a
predicate; however, if we look closely, it soon
becomes obvious that they cannot stand alone
as a complete thought. They leave us
expecting to hear more information. These
phrases often begin with subordinating
conjunctions, such as if, when, although, since,
and because
Topic 7: conjunctions
Conjunctions: connect ideas together; these ideas could be a word, a phrase, or a clause
Coordinating conjunctions
But
Or
Subordinating conjunctions
Yet
after
before
For
although
if
And
as
in order that
Nor
as
if
since
So
as long as
so that
as soon as
than
because
though
that
unless
until
when
whenever
where
wherever
while
Correlative conjunctions
either…or
neither…nor
both…and
whether…or
not only…but also
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Coordinating conjunctions join equal parts of a sentence together or groups of words.
Jack is sick, or he is in love.
Gloria worked as a translator last summer, for she speaks both Crow and English.
Emily thought hard, but she still was not sure if she wanted cheesy broccoli or
cream of mushroom soup.
Subordinating conjunctions
connect a dependent
(subordinate) clause with an
independent clause (the main
idea of the sentence).
Although the day was warm, there were no
birds in the sky.
I will miss the pow-wow if I go home this weekend.
When subordinating clauses
appear in the middle of the
sentence, they do not
require a comma. When
they introduce a dependent
clause that needs to be
separated from the main
independent clause, a
comma is placed at the end
of the dependent clause.
When coordinating
conjunctions join two
independent clauses
(complete sentences), the
conjunction is preceded by
a comma. When they
simply join two words or
ideas (incomplete
sentences), the comma is
omitted.
Correlative conjunctions connect
words or groups of words.
Both dogs and cats get fleas.
Joan not only plays the piano but also sings in
the choir.
Gloria worked as a translator last summer, for
she speaks both Crow and English.
When
correlative
conjunctions
join words the
pair must stay
complete. No
comma will be
used.
Please compose two sentences utilizing coordinating conjunctions, two sentences using subordinating conjunctions,
and two sentences using correlative conjunctions.
Topic 7 continued: colons and semicolons
:
Colons: indicate that the writer is about to give an explanation, summary, series, or quotation.
A complete sentence (independent clause) must exist in front of the colon!
I am always seeking the answer to the eternal question: how can I keep the jelly from seeping through my bread on my
PB&J sandwich?
They were concerned mainly about speed: not only did they want a very fast computer but they also had to have a very
fast Internet connection.
I was finally confronted with what I had dreaded for months: semester exams.
There were three winners: Alex, Vanna, and Jack.
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Please compose two sentences using colons.
Colons are also used…
Properly used colons
are quite impressive in
writing: they show that
you know what you are
doing and give your
writing a unique
movement. However,
they should also be used
sparingly so that they
don’t lose their power
and effectiveness.
Between titles and subtitles:
Kathy just read Women’s Ways of Knowing: The Development of Self Voice, and
Mind.
In scriptural references:
He quoted from Psalms 3:5.
In citing plays:
Act 1, Scene 3, Lines 13-17 would be shortened to1:3:13-17
Following the salutation of a business letter and the headings of a memo:
Dear Dr. Horner:
To:
From:
In time references:
We are to be there by 11:30 A.M.
;
Semicolons have two main functions.
1. Semicolons connect independent clauses when the thoughts of both are very closely related.
This creates a compound sentence.
A semicolon essentially takes the place of a comma plus one of the coordinating conjunctions.
a) Everyone else in my family excels in a particular sport; I seem to be the only exception.
Use this
b) Mary Ellen was elected president of the Honor Society; she truly deserved that recognition.
type in
c) Researchers now think that language functions as a kind of index for memories; events that occurred
the
before we acquired language apparently are not indexed, and so we cannot retrieve those memories at
challenge
will.
d) Some glaciers are melting; for example, the Athabascan glacier has retreated a thousand feet in the last
fifty years.
e) Like jazz, hip-hop is a uniquely American form of music; indeed it can be said that both forms are
fundamentally African American.
2. Semicolons separate items in a series that already contain commas
a) To survive, mountain lions need a large range area; a steady supply of deer, skunks, raccoons, foxes, and
opossums; and plenty of room to mate and raise litters.
b) There are four home stations for the Goodyear blimps: Long Beach, California; Houston, Texas; Miami,
Florida; and Rome, Italy.
c) You may turn in the reports on Thursday, September 14; Friday, September 15; or Monday, September 1.
A complete sentence (independent clause) must exist on both sides of a semicolon!
Like colons, properly used semicolons are also quite impressive in writing. They, too, should be used sparingly.
Please compose two sentences using semicolons.
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Topic 8: correcting sentence errors
Error 1
Fragments: an incomplete sentence, lacking either a subject, predicate, or complete thought
Phrases are fragments. Dependent clauses are also fragments.
Key
Fragment=frag
Comma Splice=CS
Run-on=RO
Magazines often include articles about alternative medicine. Usually covering both the benefits and the
drawbacks of particular methods.
Occasionally, alternative medical treatment includes hypnosis. The placement of a patient into a sleeplike
state.
Most patients, however, respond better when in a normal state of consciousness. According to most
psychiatrists.
Most people can be hypnotized easily. Although the depth of the trance for each person varies greatly.
Fragment spotting
1. Read the paragraph backwards, sentence by sentence.
When sentences are not in a rational order, it is easy to
spot gaps in meaning.
2. Locate the essential parts of a sentence, i.e. subject,
Fragment correcting
predicate, and complete thought.
Choose the best one for your specific fragment
3.
Put any sentence you think might be a fragment into
needs!
this frame: They do not understand the idea that
1. Add the missing part (subject, predicate,
___________. Only a full sentence will make sense in
complete idea).
this frame. If a test sentence, other than an imperative
2. Join the fragment to a nearby independent
(a sentence giving a command), does not fit into the
clause.
frame, it is a fragment.
4. Rewrite any sentence you think might be a fragment as
a yes/no question. Only full sentences can be written
this way.
Test sentence: Which is made from the leaves of the
foxglove plant.
Test: Is which made from the leaves of the foxglove
plant?
[The question does not make sense; therefore, the test
sentence is a fragment.]
Error 2
Comma splice: two independent clauses (complete sentences) joined by a comma
Most stockholders favored the merger, the management did not.
Comma splice correcting
Choose the best one for your comma splice needs!!
1. Change the comma into a semicolon.
A semicolon can join two independent clauses that are closely related; a semicolon generally
signals addition or contrast.
The new store opened this morning; the owners greeted everyone at the door.
2. Change the comma into a period with the next word capitalized (make two sentences).
Most stockholders favored the merger. The management did not.
3. Add a conjunction of some kind (BOYFANS or subordinating conjunctions).
The new store opened this morning, and the owners greeted everyone at the door.
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Error 3
Run-on: two independent clauses run together with no punctuation at all (a comma splice without the comma or any
other punctuation)
He smelled the raw smell he touched the smooth, round pebbles.
I was not making up a story when I said the dog ate my homework he just went crazy.
Run-on correcting
Use the same methods as were used in correcting comma
splices, choosing the best method for the sentences.
1. Divide the independent clauses with a semicolon.
2. Make two sentences.
3. Add a conjunction.
Run-on and Comma Splice Spotting
1. Locate a sentence you are unsure about. Put the sentence in this frame: They do not
understand the idea that ______________. Only complete sentences will make sense in this
frame. If only part of a test sentence fits into the frame, you have probably located a comma
splice or a run-on.
Test sentence: Male proboscis monkeys have oddly shaped large nose, they also have unusual
webbed paws
Test: They do not understand the idea that male proboscis monkeys have oddly shaped large
noses, they also have unusual webbed paws.
[The sentence does not make sense because there are two sentences completing the frame, and
the reader feels like the question (They do no understand…) should also be asked twice (once
for each sentence). Therefore, the sentence needs to be revised.]
2. Locate a sentence you are unsure about. Try to rewrite it as a question with a yes or no
answer. If only part of the sentence makes sense, you have likely found a comma splice or
run-on.
Test sentence: Meercats use their claws to forage for food they frequently prey on scorpions.
Test: Do meercats use their claws to forage for food they frequently prey on scorpions?
[The sentence should be revised because the question does not make sense.]
Topic 9: sentence modes
Sentences: the modes of discourse
S
C
Cx
1. Simple: a sentence with only one independent clause
The Hudson is a historic waterway.
I like chips.
I like to eat chips on historic waterways.
In the stands at half time, we talked with friends from another school about our teams’ prospects for the season.
She played basketball and won a scholarship.
2. Compound: a sentence with two or more independent clauses, but no dependent clauses (often joined together by
BOYFANS)
A strange dog chased us, but the owner came to our rescue.
The film is long, but it is suspenseful, and the time passes quickly.
She played basketball, and she won a scholarship.
3. Complex: a sentence with one independent clauses and at least one dependent clause.
As night fell, the storm drew nigh.
Because he was known for architectural ornamentation, no one predicted that the house he designed for himself
would be so plain.
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4. Compound-complex: a sentence with at least two independent clauses and at least one dependent clause
Because it had snowed hard in October that year, the ski resorts opened early, and the skiers and snowboarders
flocked to them.
While he liked the white room, he felt that it would be interesting if it were painted fluorescent green, so Philip
followed his instinct.
Becky picked the flowers, and even though the sun beat down upon her, Robin pulled weeds.
CCx
When writing, it is
important to utilize all of
the modes of discourse.
Short sentences followed by
long sentences with varying
structures make your
writing dynamic and easy to
read. Don’t be afraid to
experiment with sentence
structure!
Identify the following sentences as simple, compound, complex, or compoundcomplex.
With the goal of crossing the North Pole alone, Borge Ousland started his 1,240 mile
trek on March 3, 2001. Although Ousland had prepared for the most grueling triathlon
imaginable, he had no way of predicting what he would have to endure. One night,
huge chunks of ice forced upward from the packed surface almost destroyed his camp,
and the next morning he had to search hard for snow that he could melt into fresh
water. About a week into his trip, Ousland’s sledge started to break down. Ousland
considered canceling his trip at that point, but instead he steeled himself and ordered a new sledge, which did not arrive
until several days later. Ousland also had to swim across leads, shoot at approaching polar bears, and endure the pain of
frostbite and strained tendons. Despite all the misery, Ousland continually took cues from his surroundings. Whenever he
came to a lead, he asked himself what a polar bear would do. When crossing treacherous pack ice, he thought as a fox
would, making each step count. Ousland said the key to surviving such a rigorous journey was perseverance.
Please create and label at least one original example of each mode: simple, compound, complex, compound-complex.
Topic 10:
period, question mark, exclamation point, dash, parentheses, and ellipses
Periods
.
Question marks
?
1. Periods mark the end of a declarative sentence or a mildly
imperative one.
Respect the environment. [mildly imperative sentence]
Global warming is a serious problem. [declarative
sentence]
Marks the end of an interrogative sentence.
A question mark follows a direct question.
2. Periods follow some abbreviations.
Dr.
Jr.
A.M. vs.
etc.
St.
Ave. Rd.
Mrs. Mont.
Note: when addressing letters, we do not use periods after
writing the state abbreviations. We use the postal system’s
abbreviations, i.e. MT. (The period following MT is there
because it is the end of a sentence, not because of the
abbreviation .)
Just where is Waldo?
Know the four types of sentences.
1) Declarative:
2) Interrogative:
3) Imperative:
4) Exclamatory:
Would you pass me the salt?
Do you have any Gray Pupon?
Exclamation points
!
1) Shows strong feeling. You only need one.
2) Used after an interjection (a short word with
feeling)
3) Marks the end of a strongly imperative sentence.
Wow! That was the best movie I’ve ever seen!
“Get off the road!” he yelled.
The exclamation point should be used very
sparingly. Overuse diminishes its impact when
you really need it.
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Dashes
—
Dashes look like long hyphens (a hyphen is used to join compound words) and can be created with a word processing
program by typing two hyphens with no spaces before, between, or after them. The program will usually convert your
dashes to hyphens automatically. They signal highly specific meanings, however, so be sure to not overuse them.
A complete sentence (independent clause) must exist somewhere with a dash!
1. A dash marks a sudden break in thought or an interruption in dialogue
I was awed by the almost superhuman effort Stonehenge represents—but who wouldn’t be?
“All I wanted to know was—”
“I said go to your room NOW!” my mother shouted over me.
2. A dash sets off a parenthetical element for emphasis or (if it contains commas) for clarity.
In many smaller cities of this nation, cable television operators—with the connivance of local
government—have a virtual monopoly.
The trail down into the Grand Canyon—steep, narrow, winding, and lacking in guard rails—is
treacherous.
3. A dash occurs after an introductory list or series.
Eager, determined to succeed, and scared to death—all of these describe Beth’s emotions the first day on
the job.
( )
Parentheses
Purpose one: set off nonessential
information
I accepted his explanation (up to a
point) and set out to enjoy the
evening.
Again, parentheses must be
used sparingly;
the elements they enclose
should still read smoothly
in the sentence as a whole.
Purpose two: enclose numbers or letters used for lists.
In general, a sound argument contains (1) a clear statement
of its point placed near the beginning and (2) a refutation of
opposing positions, usually right after the point statement.
Purpose three: indicate an acronym. Always spell out the
words the first time…then you may use the acronym.
The Search for Extraterrestrial Intelligence (SETI) uses the
Very Large Array (VLA) outside Socorro, New Mexico, to
scan the sky. SETI is funded by alien-believers.
A complete sentence (independent clause) must exist somewhere with parentheses!
Ellipsis
…
1. Mark an omission within a quoted passage
Although cacao flowers are small, as Patricia Gadsby notes, “once pollinated…they’ll make pulpfilled pods almost the size of rugby balls.”
2. Mark a reflective pause or a hesitation
Keith saw four menacing youths coming toward him…and ran.
Please note that there are only three periods.
A complete sentence (independent clause) must exist somewhere with ellipsis!
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Topic 11: apostrophes, quotation marks, and underline or italics
Apostrophes
‘ ’
1. Mark omissions in contractions, numbers, or words mimicking speech, going wherever letters have been omitted.
Do not = don’t
they will = they’ll
you all = y’all
Singing = singin’
class of 2006 = class of ’06
reading = readin’
2. Indicate ownership or some other
relationship
Fumi’s computer
the trees’ branches
Einstein’s ideas
driver’s license
Linda’s sister
Mona Lisa’s smile
3.
Indicates dialogue in quoted material
“The ticket seller said, ‘Sorry, but the show
is sold out for this evening.’ Therefore, I
ended up watching The Voice at home.”
Quotation marks
Confusion often arises when the writer is trying to
decide if they need to put an ’s or and s’ at the end of a
possessive. An s’ is used at the end of a plural word
when an –s was already added to make the word plural.
Trees’s branches looks funny and is hard to read, so we
just drop the final –s and the result is trees’ branches.
On plurals that do not require an –s to make them plural,
we simply add an ’s (geese’s) because there are no
double –s’s, so there is no confusion. Singular words
always have an ’s.
“ ”
1. Enclose a direct quotation or dialogue
“Like branding steers or embalming the dead,” writes David
Sedaris, “teaching was a profession I had never seriously
considered.”
“Cleaning the gutters is the worst part of my day,” grumbled
Joe.
Writer’s note: Periods or commas go
inside quotation marks. If the descriptor is
last use a comma to end the quote and a
period to end the sentence. Question
marks and exclamation points only go
inside quotation marks when they are a
part of the quoted material. In this case, a
period follows the closing quotation mark
and marks the end of the sentence.
2. Enclose titles of short works, such as short poems, songs,
short stories, magazine or journal articles, etc.
“The Most Dangerous Game” is a startling short story most people never forget.
Underlines OR Italics: Indicate the title of a long work, such as a book, epic poem, journal, magazine, etc.
Do not use both at the same time.
Use italics when typing, but use underline when handwriting to indicate a title.
My favorite book, The Fountainhead, is more than five hundred pages long.
An easy way to decide if a title needs to be underlined or placed in quotations is to do the “Would it be printed
by itself?” test. If the work is long enough that it would be an entire book by itself, it is underlined/italicized.
Writing reminders:
 Do not use personal pronouns (I, you, we) or contractions (can’t, don’t) in formal writing.
 Be conscious of the words you choose; try to make them pop!
 Proof-read, proof-read, proof-read. Among other things, look for holes in logic or organization. A true
writer is never satisfied with a draft but is constantly revising.
 Numbers: (1) Spell out one through nine and any number that begins a sentence. (2) Hyphenate twentyone through ninety-nine. (3) If one of these numbers is followed by a word such as hundred, thousand, or
million, spell that word out, too. (4) Use a numeral for any other number unless it begins a sentence.
Sources: Hodges’ Harbrace Handbook, fifteen edition; English Grammar and Composition, fourth course
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