Download Philosopher Biographies

Plato Biography
Philosopher, Writer (c. 428 BCE–c. 348 BCE)
QUOTES
“All the gold which is under or upon the earth is
not enough to give in exchange for virtue.”—
Plato
Synopsis
Born circa 428 B.C.E., ancient Greek
philosopher Plato was a student of Socrates
and a teacher of Aristotle. His writings explored
justice, beauty and equality, and also contained discussions in aesthetics, political philosophy,
theology, cosmology, epistemology and the philosophy of language. Plato founded the
Academy in Athens, one of the first institutions of higher learning in the Western world. He died
in Athens circa 348 B.C.E.
Background
Due to a lack of primary sources from the time period, much of Plato's life has been constructed
by scholars through his writings and the writings of contemporaries and classical historians.
Traditional history estimates Plato's birth was around 428 B.C.E., but more modern scholars,
tracing later events in his life, believe he was born between 424 and 423 B.C.E. Both of his
parents came from the Greek aristocracy. Plato's father, Ariston, descended from the kings of
Athens and Messenia. His mother, Perictione, is said to be related to the 6th century B.C.E.
Greek statesman Solon.
Some scholars believe that Plato was named for his grandfather, Aristocles, following the
tradition of the naming the eldest son after the grandfather. But there is no conclusive evidence
of this, or that Plato was the eldest son in his family. Other historians claim that "Plato" was a
nickname, referring to his broad physical build. This too is possible, although there is record
that the name Plato was given to boys before Aristocles was born.
As with many young boys of his social class, Plato was probably taught by some of Athens'
finest educators. The curriculum would have featured the doctrines of Cratylus and Pythagoras
as well as Parmenides. These probably helped develop the foundation for Plato's study of
metaphysics (the study of nature) and epistemology (the study of knowledge).
Plato's father died when he was young, and his mother remarried her uncle, Pyrilampes, a
Greek politician and ambassador to Persia. Plato is believed to have had two full brothers, one
sister and a half brother, though it is not certain where he falls in the birth order. Often,
members of Plato's family appeared in his dialogues. Historians believe this is an indication of
Plato's pride in his family lineage.
As a young man, Plato experienced two major events that set his course in life. One was
meeting the great Greek philosopher Socrates. Socrates's methods of dialogue and debate
impressed Plato so much that he soon he became a close associate and dedicated his life to the
question of virtue and the formation of a noble character. The other significant event was the
Peloponnesian War between Athens and Sparta, in which Plato served for a brief time between
409 and 404 B.C.E. The defeat of Athens ended its democracy, which the Spartans replaced
with an oligarchy. Two of Plato's relatives, Charmides and Critias, were prominent figures in the
new government, part of the notorious Thirty Tyrants whose brief rule severely reduced the
rights of Athenian citizens. After the oligarchy was overthrown and democracy was restored,
Plato briefly considered a career in politics, but the execution of Socrates in 399 B.C.E. soured
him on this idea and he turned to a life of study and philosophy.
After Socrates's death, Plato traveled for 12 years throughout the Mediterranean region,
studying mathematics with the Pythagoreans in Italy, and geometry, geology, astronomy and
religion in Egypt. During this time, or soon after, he began his extensive writing. There is some
debate among scholars on the order of these writings, but most believe they fall into three
distinct periods.
Early, Middle and Late Periods: An Overview
The first, or early, period occurs during Plato's travels (399-387 B.C.E.). TheApology of
Socrates seems to have been written shortly after Socrates's death. Other texts in this time
period include Protagoras, Euthyphro, Hippias Major and Minor and Ion. In these dialogues,
Plato attempts to convey Socrates's philosophy and teachings.
In the second, or middle, period, Plato writes in his own voice on the central ideals of justice,
courage, wisdom and moderation of the individual and society. The Republic was written during
this time with its exploration of just government ruled by philosopher kings.
In the third, or late, period, Socrates is relegated to a minor role and Plato takes a closer look at
his own early metaphysical ideas. He explores the role of art, including dance, music, drama and
architecture, as well as ethics and morality. In his writings on the Theory of Forms, Plato
suggests that the world of ideas is the only constant and that the perceived world through our
senses is deceptive and changeable.
Founding the Academy
Sometime around 385 B.C.E., Plato founded a school of learning, known as the Academy, which
he presided over until his death. It is believed the school was located at an enclosed park
named for a legendary Athenian hero. The Academy operated until 529 C.E.., when it was
closed by Roman Emperor Justinian I, who feared it was a source of paganism and a threat to
Christianity. Over its years of operation, the Academy's curriculum included astronomy, biology,
mathematics, political theory and philosophy. Plato hoped the Academy would provide a place
for future leaders to discover how to build a better government in the Greek city-states.
In 367 B.C.E., Plato was invited by Dion, a friend and disciple, to be the personal tutor of his
nephew, Dionysius II, the new ruler of Syracuse (Sicily). Dion believed that Dionysius showed
promise as an ideal leader. Plato accepted, hoping the experience would produce a philosopher
king. But Dionysius fell far short of expectations and suspected Dion, and later Plato, of
conspiring against him. He had Dion exiled and Plato placed under "house arrest." Eventually,
Plato returned to Athens and his Academy. One of his more promising students there was
Aristotle, who would take his mentor's teachings in new directions.
Final Years
Plato's final years were spent at the Academy and with his writing. The circumstances
surrounding his death are clouded, though it is fairly certain that he died in Athens around 348
B.C.E., when he was in his early 80s. Some scholars suggest that he died while attending a
wedding, while others believe he died peacefully in his sleep.
Plato's impact on philosophy and the nature of humans has had a lasting impact far beyond his
homeland of Greece. His work covered a broad spectrum of interests and ideas: mathematics,
science and nature, morals and political theory. His beliefs on the importance of mathematics in
education have proven to be essential for understanding the entire universe. His work on the
use of reason to develop a more fair and just society that is focused on the equality of
individuals established the foundation for modern democracy.
Socrates Biography
Philosopher (c. 470 BCE–c. 399 BCE)
Synopsis
Socrates was born circa 470 BC, in Athens, Greece.
We know of his life through the writings of his
students, including Plato and Xenophon. His
"Socratic method," laid the groundwork for Western
systems of logic and philosophy. When the political
climate of Greece turned, Socrates was sentenced to
death by hemlock poisoning in 399 BC. He accepted
this judgment rather than fleeing into exile.
Early Years
Born circa 470 BC in Athens, Greece, Socrates's life is chronicled through only a few sources—
the dialogues of Plato and Xenophon and the plays of Aristophanes. Because these writings had
other purposes than reporting his life, it is likely none present a completely accurate picture.
However, collectively, they provide a unique and vivid portrayal of Socrates's philosophy and
personality.
Socrates was the son of Sophroniscus, an Athenian stone mason and sculptor, and Phaenarete, a
midwife. Because he wasn't from a noble family, he probably received a basic Greek education
and learned his father's craft at a young age. It is believed Socrates worked as mason for many
years before he devoted his life to philosophy. Contemporaries differ in their account of how
Socrates supported himself as a philosopher. Both Xenophon and Aristophanes state Socrates
received payment for teaching, while Plato writes Socrates explicitly denied accepting payment,
citing his poverty as proof.
Socrates married Xanthippe, a younger woman, who bore him three sons—Lamprocles,
Sophroniscus and Menexenus. There is little known about her except for Xenophon's
characterization of Xanthippe as "undesirable." He writes she was not happy with Socrates's
second profession and complained that he wasn’t supporting family as a philosopher. By his own
words, Socrates had little to do with his sons' upbringing and expressed far more interest in the
intellectual development of Athens' young boys.
Athenian law required all able bodied males serve as citizen soldiers, on call for duty from ages
18 until 60. According to Plato, Socrates served in the armored infantry—known as the hoplite—
with shield, long spear and face mask. He participated in three military campaigns during the
Peloponnesian War, at Delium, Amphipolis, and Potidaea, where he saved the life of Alcibiades,
a popular Athenian general. Socrates was known for his courage in battle and fearlessness, a trait
that stayed with him throughout his life. After his trial, he compared his refusal to retreat from
his legal troubles to a soldier's refusal to retreat from battle when threatened with death.
Plato's Symposium provides the best details of Socrates's physical appearance. He was not the
ideal of Athenian masculinity. Short and stocky, with a snub nose and bulging eyes, Socrates
always seemed to appear to be staring. However, Plato pointed out that in the eyes of his
students, Socrates possessed a different kind of attractiveness, not based on a physical ideal but
on his brilliant debates and penetrating thought. Socrates always emphasized the importance of
the mind over the relative unimportance of the human body. This credo inspired Plato’s
philosophy of dividing reality into two separate realms, the world of the senses and the world of
ideas, declaring that the latter was the only important one.
Philosopher
Socrates believed that philosophy should achieve practical results for the greater well-being of
society. He attempted to establish an ethical system based on human reason rather than
theological doctrine. He pointed out that human choice was motivated by the desire for
happiness. Ultimate wisdom comes from knowing oneself. The more a person knows, the greater
his or her ability to reason and make choices that will bring true happiness. Socrates believed
that this translated into politics with the best form of government being neither a tyranny nor a
democracy. Instead, government worked best when ruled by individuals who had the greatest
ability, knowledge, and virtue and possessed a complete understanding of themselves.
For Socrates, Athens was a classroom and he went about asking questions of the elite and
common man alike, seeking to arrive at political and ethical truths. Socrates didn’t lecture about
what he knew. In fact, he claimed to be ignorant because he had no ideas, but wise because he
recognized his own ignorance. He asked questions of his fellow Athenians in a dialectic method
(the Socratic Method) which compelled the audience to think through a problem to a logical
conclusion. Sometimes the answer seemed so obvious, it made Socrates's opponents look foolish.
For this, he was admired by some and vilified by others.
During Socrates's life, Athens was going through a dramatic transition from hegemony in the
classical world to its decline after a humiliating defeat by Sparta in the Peloponnesian War.
Athenians entered a period of instability and doubt about their identity and place in the world. As
a result, they clung to past glories, notions of wealth, and a fixation with physical beauty.
Socrates attacked these values with his insistent emphasis on the greater importance of the mind.
While many Athenians admired Socrates's challenges to Greek conventional wisdom and the
humorous way he went about it, an equal number grew angry and felt he threatened their way of
life and uncertain future.
Execution
The jury was not swayed by Socrates's defense and convicted him by a vote of 280 to 221.
Possibly the defiant tone of his defense contributed to the verdict and he made things worse
during the deliberation over his punishment. Athenian law allowed a convicted citizen to propose
an alternative punishment to the one called for by the prosecution and the jury would decide.
Instead of proposing he be exiled, Socrates suggested he be honored by the city for his
contribution to their enlightenment and be paid for his services. The jury was not amused and
sentenced him to death by drinking a mixture of poison hemlock.
Before Socrates's execution, friends offered to bribe the guards and rescue him so he could flee
into exile. He declined, stating he wasn't afraid of death, felt he would be no better off if in exile
and said he was still a loyal citizen of Athens, willing to abide by its laws, even the ones that
condemned him to death. Plato described Socrates's execution in his Phaedo dialogue: Socrates
drank the hemlock mixture without hesitation. Numbness slowly crept into his body until it
reached his heart. Shortly before his final breath, Socrates described his death as a release of the
soul from the body.
Aristotle Biography
Philosopher (c. 384 BCE–c. 322 BCE)
QUOTES
“Knowing yourself is the beginning of all
wisdom.”
—Aristotle
Synopsis
Ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle was born
circa 384 B.C. in Stagira, Greece. When he
turned 17, he enrolled in Plato’s Academy. In
338, he began tutoring Alexander the Great. In
335, Aristotle founded his own school, the
Lyceum, in Athens, where he spent most of the
rest of his life studying, teaching and writing.
Aristotle died in 322 B.C., after he left Athens
and fled to Chalcis.
Early Life
Ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle was born circa 384 B.C. in Stagira, a small town on the
northern coast of Greece that was once a seaport. Aristotle’s father, Nicomachus, was court
physician to the Macedonian king Amyntas II. Although Nicomachus died when Aristotle was
just a young boy, Aristotle remained closely affiliated with and influenced by the Macedonian
court for the rest of his life. Little is known about his mother, Phaestis; she is also believed to
have died when Aristotle was young.
After Aristotle’s father died, Proxenus of Atarneus, who was married to Aristotle’s older sister,
Arimneste, became Aristotle’s guardian until he came of age. When Aristotle turned 17,
Proxenus sent him to Athens to pursue a higher education. At the time, Athens was considered
the academic center of the universe. In Athens, Aristotle enrolled in Plato’s Academy, Greek’s
premier learning institution, and proved an exemplary scholar. Aristotle maintained a
relationship with Greek philosopher Plato, himself a student of Socrates, and his academy for
two decades. Plato died in 347 B.C. Because Aristotle had disagreed with some of Plato’s
philosophical treatises, Aristotle did not inherit the position of director of the academy, as many
imagined he would.
After Plato died, Aristotle’s friend Hermias, king of Atarneus and Assos in Mysia, invited
Aristotle to court. During his three-year stay in Mysia, Aristotle met and married his first wife,
Pythias, Hermias’ niece. Together, the couple had a daughter, Pythias, named after her mother.
Teaching
In 338 B.C., Aristotle went home to Macedonia to start tutoring King Phillip II’s son, the then
13-year-old Alexander the Great. Phillip and Alexander both held Aristotle in high esteem and
ensured that the Macedonia court generously compensated him for his work.
In 335 B.C., after Alexander had succeeded his father as king and conquered Athens, Aristotle
went back to the city. In Athens, Plato’s Academy, now run by Xenocrates, was still the leading
influence on Greek thought. With Alexander’s permission, Aristotle started his own school in
Athens, called the Lyceum. On and off, Aristotle spent most of the remainder of his life working
as a teacher, researcher and writer at the Lyceum in Athens.
Because Aristotle was known to walk around the school grounds while teaching, his students,
forced to follow him, were nicknamed the “Peripatetics,” meaning “people who travel about.”
Lyceum members researched subjects ranging from science and math to philosophy and politics,
and nearly everything in between. Art was also a popular area of interest. Members of the
Lyceum wrote up their findings in manuscripts. In so doing, they built the school’s massive
collection of written materials, which by ancient accounts was credited as one of the first great
libraries.
In the same year that Aristotle opened the Lyceum, his wife Pythias died. Soon after, Aristotle
embarked on a romance with a woman named Herpyllis, who hailed from his hometown of
Stagira. According to some historians, Herpyllis may have been Aristotle’s slave, granted to him
by the Macedonia court. They presume that he eventually freed and married her. Regardless, it is
known that Herpyllis bore Aristotle children, including one son named Nicomachus, after
Aristotle’s father. Aristotle is believed to have named his famed philosophical
work Nicomachean Ethics in tribute to his son.
When Aristotle’s former student Alexander the Great died suddenly in 323 B.C., the proMacedonian government was overthrown, and in light of anti-Macedonia sentiment, Aristotle
was charge with impiety. To avoid being prosecuted, he left Athens and fled to Chalcis on the
island of Euboea, where he would remain until his death.
Science
Although Aristotle was not technically a scientist by today’s definitions, science was among the
subjects that he researched at length during his time at the Lyceum. Aristotle believed that
knowledge could be obtained through interacting with physical objects. He concluded that
objects were made up of a potential that circumstances then manipulated to determine the
object’s outcome. He also recognized that human interpretation and personal associations played
a role in our understanding of those objects.
Aristotle’s research in the sciences included a study of biology. He attempted, with some error,
to classify animals into genera based on their similar characteristics. He further classified
animals into species based on those that had red blood and those that did not. The animals with
red blood were mostly vertebrates, while the “bloodless” animals were labeled cephalopods.
Despite the relative inaccuracy of his hypothesis, Aristotle’s classification was regarded as the
standard system for hundreds of years.
Marine biology was also an area of fascination for Aristotle. Through dissection, he closely
examined the anatomy of marine creatures. In contrast to his biological classifications, his
observations of marine life, as expressed in his books, are considerably more accurate.
As evidenced in his treatise Meteorology, Aristotle also dabbled in the earth sciences. By
meteorology, Aristotle didn’t simply mean the study of weather. His more expansive definition
of meteorology included “all the affectations we may call common to air and water, and the
kinds and parts of the earth and the affectations of its parts.” In Meteorology, Aristotle identified
the water cycle and discussed topics ranging from natural disasters to astrological events.
Although many of his views on the Earth were controversial at the time, they were readopted and
popularized during the late Middle Ages.
Philosophy
One of the main focuses of Aristotle’s philosophy was his systematic concept of logic.
Aristotle’s objective was to come up with a universal process of reasoning that would allow man
to learn every conceivable thing about reality. The initial process involved describing objects
based on their characteristics, states of being and actions. In his philosophical treatises, Aristotle
also discussed how man might next obtain information about objects through deduction and
inference. To Aristotle, a deduction was a reasonable argument in which “when certain things are
laid down, something else follows out of necessity in virtue of their being so.” His theory of
deduction is the basis of what philosophers now call a syllogism, a logical argument where the
conclusion is inferred from two or more other premises of a certain form.
In his book Prior Analytics, Aristotle explains the syllogism as “a discourse in which, certain
things having been supposed, something different from the things supposed results of necessity
because these things are so.” Aristotle defined the main components of reasoning in terms of
inclusive and exclusive relationships. These sorts of relationships were visually grafted in the
future through the use of Venn diagrams.
Aristotle’s philosophy not only provided man with a system of reasoning, but also touched upon
ethics. In Nichomachean Ethics, he prescribed a moral code of conduct for what he called “good
living.” He asserted that good living to some degree defied the more restrictive laws of logic,
since the real world poses circumstances that can present a conflict of personal values. That said,
it was up to the individual to reason cautiously while developing his or her own judgment.
Major Writings
Aristotle wrote an estimated 200 works, most in the form of notes and manuscript drafts. They
consist of dialogues, records of scientific observations and systematic works. His student
Theophrastus reportedly looked after Aristotle’s writings and later passed them to his own
student Neleus, who stored them in a vault to protect them from moisture until they were taken to
Rome and used by scholars there. Of Aristotle’s estimated 200 works, only 31 are still in
circulation. Most date to Aristotle’s time at the Lyceum.
Aristotle’s major writings on logic include Categories, On Interpretation, Prior
Analytics and Posterior Analytics. In them, he discusses his system for reasoning and for
developing sound arguments. Aristotle’s written work also discussed the topics of matter and
form. In his book Metaphysics, he clarified the distinction between the two. To Aristotle, matter
was the physical substance of things, while form was the unique nature of a thing that gave it its
identity. Nicomachean Ethics and Eudemian Ethics are Aristotle’s major treatises on the
behavior and judgment that constitute “good living.” In Politics, Aristotle examined human
behavior in the context of society and government.
Aristotle also composed a number of works on the arts, including Rhetoric, and science,
including On the Heavens, which was followed by On the Soul, in which Aristotle moves from
discussing astronomy to examining human psychology. Aristotle’s writings about how people
perceive the world continue to underlie many principles of modern psychology.
Death and Legacy
In 322 B.C., just a year after he fled to Chalcis to escape prosecution under charges of impiety,
Aristotle contracted a disease of the digestive organs and died. In the century following his
passing, his works fell out of use, but were revived during the first century. Over time, they came
to lay the foundation of more than seven centuries of philosophy. Solely regarding his influence
on philosophy, Aristotle’s work influenced ideas from late antiquity all the way through the
Renaissance. Aristotle’s influence on Western thought in the humanities and social sciences is
largely considered unparalleled, with the exception of his teacher Plato’s contributions, and
Plato’s teacher Socrates before him. The two-millennia-strong academic practice of interpreting
and debating Aristotle’s philosophical works continues to endure.