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Contents
Agreement & Reference Errors ...................................................................................................... 3
Articles ............................................................................................................................................ 7
Indefinite Articles ........................................................................................................................ 7
Definite Articles .......................................................................................................................... 7
The Generic Use of Articles ...................................................................................................... 11
Common Proofreading Problems .................................................................................................. 12
Conjunctions & Conjunctive Adverbs .......................................................................................... 13
Coordination .............................................................................................................................. 13
Subordination ............................................................................................................................ 15
Countable & Noncountable Nouns ............................................................................................... 19
Types of Noncountable Nouns .................................................................................................. 19
Double-Duty Words .................................................................................................................. 20
Special Circumstances............................................................................................................... 21
Dangling Modifiers ....................................................................................................................... 22
The Dangling Participial Phrase ................................................................................................ 22
The Dangling Infinitive Phrase ................................................................................................. 23
The Dangling Elliptical Clause ................................................................................................. 24
English as a Second Language ...................................................................................................... 25
Faulty Parallelism ......................................................................................................................... 26
Faulty Pairs ................................................................................................................................ 26
The Shifted Series ..................................................................................................................... 26
The "And Who" or "And Which" Construction ........................................................................ 27
Faulty Sentence Patterns ............................................................................................................... 28
Fragments .................................................................................................................................. 28
Run-Together Sentences ........................................................................................................... 28
Comma Splices.......................................................................................................................... 29
Run-On Sentences ..................................................................................................................... 30
Focusing & Organizing Composition ........................................................................................... 31
Characteristics of Good Compositions...................................................................................... 31
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Good and Bad Topic Sentences ................................................................................................ 33
A Sample Explanatory Paragraph ............................................................................................. 35
The Writing Process ...................................................................................................................... 37
Online Resources .......................................................................................................................... 40
Language Terms............................................................................................................................ 41
Personal Pronouns ......................................................................................................................... 48
Punctuation ................................................................................................................................... 50
Expletives, To be Verbs, and the Passive ..................................................................................... 60
Expletives .................................................................................................................................. 60
To be Verbs ............................................................................................................................... 61
The Passive................................................................................................................................ 61
Verb Tenses .................................................................................................................................. 64
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Agreement & Reference Errors
The general rule is that the subject and verb must agree in number. If the subject is singular or
noncountable, the verb is singular. If the subject is plural, the verb is plural. Following are
several situations in which errors in agreement often occur.
1. When a modifying phrase or clause separates the subject from the verb, all the words
within the phrase or clause should be ignored when determining whether the verb is
singular or plural (except in the situation described in A2, below).


The man {with five cats} has to buy lots of cat food.
The men {who are fishing through the ice} are cold.
2. When the subject of a clause is all of, none of, some of, or a similar phrase that can be
followed by either a noncountable noun or a plural, then the verb agrees in number with
the object of of. If the object is noncountable, the verb is singular; if it is plural, then the
verb is plural.

All of the children are happy.

None of the cooked cabbage was eaten.

Some of the butter has crumbs in it.
3. A compound indefinite such as everyone, nothing, or something is considered a singular
and is followed by a singular verb.

No one was happy that the meeting lasted longer than expected.

Anyone who wanted to was able to attend the festival.
4. A gerund, an infinitive, or a noun clause used as a noun-substitute is normally treated
like a noncountable and, therefore, is followed by a singular verb.

Jogging is a popular sport in the United States.

To err is human.

That the election will be lost is uncertain.
5. Compound subjects connected by and are followed by a plural verb, while compound
subjects connected by or or nor agree in number with the subject nearest the verb. If this
subject is singular or noncountable, the verb is singular. If the subject is plural, then the
verb is plural.

Mary and her cousin often enjoy swimming at Hillcrest Park.
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

Either Bill's parents or his older sister is going to bring the hotdogs to the picnic.
Neither Sam nor his roommates plan to hold a party on Halloween.
6. When the verb comes before the subject, as in some questions, in statements beginning
with the expletive there, or in some sentences with an introductory place expression, the
verb must agree with the subject, despite the subject being out of its normal position. If
two or more subjects are connected by or or nor, as in the second and third examples
below, the verb agrees with the nearest of the subjects, even though the change in the
position of the verb may make subject-verb agreement different from that in the
corresponding statement. (See C5 above.)






Were the speakers late for the conference?
Is either Bill or his roommates happy about the increase in rent? (vs. Neither Bill
nor his roommates are happy about the increase in rent.)
Are either the boys or their sister going to visit their aunt this summer? (vs.
Either the boys or their sister is going to visit their aunt this summer.)
There is some ice in the refrigerator.
There are some rotten apples under the apple tree.
In the corner of the garden underneath a huge apple tree were two small squirrels
and a rabbit.
7. When a clause marker is the subject of a dependent clause, the verb in the clause agrees
in number with the antecedent of the clause marker (that is, with the word the clause
marker refers to).


The planes which are going to be built by the Boeing Company will cost billions
of dollars.
The man who is on Bill's right used to play the trumpet in the St. Paul symphony
orchestra.
Noun-Pronoun Agreement
A pronoun must agree in both number and gender with the word it refers to (that is, with its
antecedent).






Incorrect: Mrs. Smith is unhappy about the way his hair looks and plans to complain to
his hairdresser about it.
Correct: Mrs. Smith is unhappy about the way her hair looks and plans to complain to her
hairdresser about it.
Correct: Mrs. Smith is unhappy about the way her son's hair looks and plans to complain
to his hairdresser about it.
Incorrect: Of the hundreds of people hearing about the plane crash, not one called to offer
their help.
Correct: Of the hundreds of people hearing about the plane crash, not one called to offer
his or her help.
Incorrect: Everyone that I telephoned said that they were busy.
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
Correct: Everyone that I telephoned said that he or she was busy.
Sexist Language
Currently many persons object to the traditional use of forms of the masculine pronoun "he" to
refer back to singulars indicating a combination of males and females because they feel the
practice is sexist. As a result, they employ "he or she" or "he/she" and similar forms in situations
like those in the final two examples above, a solution that many consider awkward and wordy.
Often a better solution is to rephrase the sentence so that the problem of whether to follow the
older or the more recent custom is avoided. Following are alternative ways of correcting the
agreement errors in the last two examples above:


Correct: Of the hundreds of people hearing about the plane crash, not one called to offer
help.
Correct: Everyone that I telephoned claimed to be busy.
At other times shifting to either a passive construction or a plural is an acceptable solution to the
problem:



Undesirable: When a driver doesn't wear his or her seat belt, he or she is often more
severely injured in a traffic accident than he or she would have been if he or she had worn
his or her seat belt.
Better: When seat belts aren't worn, more severe injuries often result from a traffic
accident than there would have been if seat belts had been worn. (passive)
Even better: When drivers don't wear seat belts, they are often more severely injured in a
traffic accident than they would have been if they had worn them. (plural)
Modifier-Noun Agreement
In English, adjectives and nouns modifying other nouns do not agree in number with the words
they modify. The simple form is customarily employed.


Bill owns two old cars. (adjective modifier)
Fields in which beans are grown are called bean fields. (noun used as modifier)
Exception: Modifiers derived from proper nouns that are normally plural and from a few other
nouns where a shift to a second definition would take place if the form were singular use the
plural form:

a United Nations observer, Materials Testing Laboratory, the Periodicals Room in a
library.
Reference Errors
Technically, pronouns should refer to one specific word or group of words, never to an entire
sentence or an entire concept. If there is no such word or group of words (that is, if a pronoun has
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no antecedent), then a reference error exists. A reference error also occurs when it is unclear
which of two or more words in the context is the intended antecedent. Following are examples of
three of the most common types of reference errors and of some ways to correct them:
1. The Indefinite which:





Incorrect: Bill's vacation was delayed by the merger of his company with another, which
he had expected.
Correct: As he had expected, Bill's vacation was delayed when his company merged with
another. (Bill expected the delay in his vacation.)
Correct: Bill's vacation was delayed when the expected merger of his company with
another took place. (Bill expected the merger.)
Incorrect: Mary received a letter of admission from Harvard University, which was a
great honor.
Correct: Mary's admission to Harvard University was a great honor.
2. The Indefinite this:
Although the indefinite this is frequently found in conversation and in writing imitating speech,
it is best to be more precise in other types of writing, especially in academic writing, since
readers have no means of asking for clarification if they are unsure about what is intended.





Undesirable: The candidate failed to respond adequately to the charge that he was soft on
crime. This was what the opposition had hoped for.
Better: The candidate failed to respond adequately to the charge that he was soft on
crime. This failure was what the opposition had hoped for.Better: The candidate's failure
to respond adequately to the charge that he was soft on crime was what the opposition
had hoped for.
Undesirable: George didn't file his petition of candidacy for mayor before the deadline.
This means that his opponent will automatically win the election.
Better: George's not filing his petition of candidacy for mayor on time means that his
opponent will automatically win the election.
Better: Because George didn't file his petition of candidacy for mayor on time, his
opponent will automatically win the election.
3. Unclear References
As the following example shows, it is sometimes impossible to be sure who the person a pronoun
refers to is when two persons of the same gender are included in the same context.



Incorrect: Mary's sister said that she would soon leave on her trip to Japan.
Correct: Mary's sister said that Mary would soon leave on her trip to Japan.
Correct: Mary's sister said, "I will soon leave on my trip to Japan."
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Articles
Singular countable nouns are generally preceded by an article--a, an, or the, and many plural
nouns have the before them. Normally no article is used when a possessive occurs before the
noun. The rule is that an article and a possessive can never modify the same noun: a book or the
book or Bill's book, but never Bill's the book or the his book.
A and an are called indefinite articles because they refer to any one of several or many similar
objects. If, for instance, a person says, "Please hand me a pen," he doesn't care whether you give
him the one on the table or the one on the desk or whether you give him the blue one, the red
one, or the black one--as long as he has something with which to write. If, on the other hand, he
says, "Give me the pen," he wants a particular pen, perhaps the only pen available or the
particular pen that was just mentioned. Because the designates something as "the only one or
ones," the is called the definite article.
Indefinite Articles
A is used before a singular countable noun beginning with a consonant sound. An is used before
a noun beginning with a vowel sound. Words starting with h and u can cause a problem because
each of these letters has two different pronunciations. H is sometimes aspirated as in house and
horse and sometimes silent as in herb, while u is sometimes pronounced like a vowel, as in
umbrella and undergraduate, and sometimes like the consonant y + vowel, as in university and
union. Thus, it is necessary to check the pronunciation of unfamiliar words beginning with either
of these letters before deciding whether to use a or an. Occasionally other words create
difficulties also, so it is necessary to listen to the sound of the word, not just look at its
spelling: a South Dakota State University student vs. an SDSU student or a master's degree
student vs. an MA student. The second of each pair pronounces the first letter of the word
following the article like a vowel, not like a consonant.
One is used to replace a/an when there is a contrast between two or more numbers:



I have two sons but only one daughter.
Bill bought five goldfish but only one beta for his tank.
He owns one dog, not two.
No indefinite article exists for plural nouns. Either no article is used before the indefinite plural,
or the quantity word some is employed to stress the indefiniteness of the situation. Thus, "I need
apples to make a pie for dinner tonight" means approximately the same as "I need some apples to
make a pie for dinner tonight."
Definite Articles
A. "The Only One or Ones":
The most common reasons for a word being particular are the following: it is "the only one" in
the surroundings or in existence; it has been previously mentioned: or it has been made particular
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by a modifier. For instance, modifying a word with the superlative form of an adjective, a
ranking adjective, or an ordinal number makes a word particular, since these modifiers make the
word "the only one/ones."
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The sky is bright blue today. (the only one in existence)
A dog and a cat are sitting on a porch across the street. The cat belongs to my sister. (the second
time mentioned)
Historians study constitutions from all over the world. The American constitution is one of the
oldest still in use. (a single-word modifier)
The boy in the black coat is my son. (an adjective phrase)
The woman whom I just spoke to is the director of the public library. (an adjective clause; an
adjective phrase)
The tallest boys were asked to stand in the last row. (a superlative; a ranking adjective)
The main incentive for being on time was to get a comfortable chair. (a ranking adjective)
The second person in line was a bank robber. (an ordinal number)
B. Special Circumstances Using The:
With The
1a. Before the name of a musical instrument, especially after the word play:
Bill plays the piano, as well the trumpet and the guitar.
(In informal spoken English the is sometimes omitted, but the is preferred in other
circumstances.)
2a. Before the name of a language when the word language is included:
The Russian language and the English language are difficult to learn.
(The refers to language, which is made particular by the modifier.)
3a. Before the titles of officials when used to indicate the individual holding the office:
The secretary of state will attend the reception for the queen.
4a. Before the names of most historical periods or events:
the First World War, the Civil War, the Renaissance, the Old Stone Age, the Space Age
Before the plural of a family name to indicate two or more members of the family
the Smiths, the Ricardos
Without The
1b. Before the name of a game or sport:
Sam plays badminton and goes swimming in the summertime, but he enjoys chess and bridge in
the wintertime.
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2b. When the name of the language is used by itself:
Spanish is supposed to be one of the easiest languages to learn, but German is considered to be
difficult.
3b. When the name of the official is included along with the title:
Prince Charles was greeted warmly by Mayor Daily.
4b. Before the names of historical periods and events when Roman numerals are employed:
World War II
5b. Before a family name referring to a single person (usually a male)
Jones, Marciano, Kim
C. General Rules for The with Place Names:
1. The is used with plural place names.
the United States, the Philippines, the Cascade Mountains, the Great Lakes
1. The is used with place names composed of common nouns plus proper nouns inside
prepositional phrases beginning with of.
the Republic of China, the State of South Dakota, the University of Oklahoma, the Gulf of Mexico
Note that when the is employed in this manner, it is not capitalized, although words like
University, State, and Kingdom are.
1. The is used with names of countries made up entirely or partly of common nouns such as union,
republic, empire, or commonwealth.
the British Empire, the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics
D. Specific Rules for The with Place Names:
With The:

Points of the compass used as names for geographical areas

o

the North, the Midwest, the Near East
Special points on the globe

o

the North Pole, the 35th Parallel, the Tropic of Capricorn
Mountain ranges

o
o
the Rocky Mountains
(Mountains may be omitted: the Rockies)
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o

(However, the is not used with the name of a single mountain: Mount Everest, Harney
Peak)
Deserts, forests, peninsulas, and archipelagos

o

the Great Salt Desert, the Black Forest, the Iberian Peninsula, the Malay Archipelago
Most bodies of water

o

the Missouri River, the Baltic Sea, the Pacific Ocean, the Arabian Gulf, the English
Channel
o (The words Ocean, Sea, or River may be omitted: the Missouri)
Libraries and museums

o

the Cincinnati Public Library, the Memorial Art Museum
Hotels

o
o

the Holiday Inn, the Hilton Hotel
(The word Hotel may be omitted: the Hilton)
Towers and most buildings

o

the Eiffel Tower, the Empire State Building, the Taj Mahal, the Coliseum, the Civic
Auditorium
o (But: Carnegie Hall, Winchester Cathedral, Westminster Abbey, Buckingham Palace,
Norwich Castle)
Tunnels and most bridges

o
o
the Hudson Tunnel, the Golden Gate Bridge, the Brooklyn Bridge
(But: London Bridge)
Without The:

Continents

o

South America, Antarctica, Africa
Most countries

o

England, Germany, Malaysia, Mali, Costa Rica
Cities and States (two exceptions)

o
o

Streets

o

Fifth Avenue, Pall Mall, Orchard Drive, Brush Creek Boulevard, Drury Lane
Parks

o

New York City, Buenos Aires, Minnesota, Florida, Vatican City
(But: the Hague, the Vatican, although not Vatican City)
Islands
Hillcrest Park, Lake Oakwood State Park, Pioneer Park
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
o
o

Coney Island, Manhattan Island
(But: the Philippine Islands, the Isle of Jersey)
Lakes and Bays

o
o

Lake Superior, Rocky Fork Lake, Hudson Bay
(But: the Bay of Biscay)
Universities, colleges, and other schools

o
o
Long Beach State University, Wilmington College, Hillsboro High School, Central
Elementary, Culver Military Academy
(But: the University of Kentucky)
The Generic Use of Articles
Articles are used generically when they are employed before a noun in a generalization, a
sentence which comments about a group or category as a whole, not about separate real
individuals or things. Either the, a, or an can be used before a singular countable noun to refer to
a group, while no article is employed with a plural countable noun used generically:
The cat is a nocturnal animal.
A cat is often playful.
Cats like to catch mice and eat them.
Although each of the above sentences would continue to have about the same meaning if one of
the other underlined forms is substituted for the form in the given sentence, the emphasis would
be different. The before the singular noun stresses the category or group itself, but a or an
emphasizes the individual within the group. If the indefinite plural is used, then the focus is on
all of the individual members of the group.
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Common Proofreading Problems
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Agreement Errors
o Subject-Verb
o Noun-Pronoun
o Modifier-Noun
Dangling Modifiers
Expletives, To Be Verbs, and the Passive
Faulty Parallelism
Faulty Sentence Patterns
o Fragments
o Comma Splices
o Run-Together Sentences (= Fused Sentences)
o Run-On Sentences
Reference Errors
o The Indefinite This
o The Indefinite Which
o Unclear References
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Conjunctions & Conjunctive Adverbs
Conjunctions and conjunctive adverbs make the relationships between sentences and ideas
smoother and clearer. The ones a writer chooses signal which ideas are more or less important
than others and what kinds of connections the ideas have to one another. Coordinating
conjunctions and conjunctive adverbs indicate that the words and ideas they connect have equal
importance, while subordinating conjunctions (or clause markers) signal that the clauses they
precede are less important than the information in the clauses they are attached to. Note the type
of punctuation and sentence pattern required by each word. If these are faulty, then the faulty
sentence patterns described in Faulty Sentence Patterns may result. In fact, probably the most
common cause of such faulty sentences is confusion about which category the following
conjunctions and conjunctive adverbs belong to.
Coordination
1. Coordinating Conjunctions
Coordinating conjunctions can connect words, phrases and clauses of equal importance. In
American English commas are normally employed before the coordinating conjunction in a
compound sentence.
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
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
and
but
yet (= but)
or (either . . . or)
nor (neither . . . nor)
so (cause--speech and informal writing only)
for (reason--formal only and only in the second clause of a compound sentence)
Neither Joe or his neighbor realized that a manager at Arby's earns more money than a public
school teacher.
Bob climbed the hill, and his dog followed.
2. Conjunctive Adverbs(= Coordinating Adverbs):
Technically, conjunctive adverbs are not connecting words: they are transition words. As a
result they can occur at the beginning, in the middle, or at the end of either the second of the two
clauses in a compound sentence or in the second of two related sentences. If they are used in a
compound sentence, a semicolon is ordinarily used to connect the two clauses, although a colon,
a dash, or a comma along with a coordinating conjunction are sometimes possible. Wherever
they are found, coordinating conjunctions are set off from the sentence in which they are located
by commas.
Time:
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








then
meanwhile
henceforth
afterward
later
soon
at one moment...at the next
sometimes...sometimes
now...then
Addition:









likewise
moreover
furthermore
besides
then too
also
in addition
partly...partly
for one thing ...for another (thing)
Concession or contrast:

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





however
nevertheless
still
on (the) one hand...on the other hand
on the contrary
instead
rather
exactly the opposite
Result:







consequently
hence
then
therefore
thus
accordingly
as a result
Condition:

otherwise (= if not)
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1. Danielle likes to make sugar cookies; however, she doesn't eat many of them.
2. Danielle likes to make sugar cookies; she doesn't, however, eat many of them.
3. Danielle likes to make sugar cookies; she doesn't eat many of them, however.
Subordination
1. Clause Markers (= Subordinating Conjunctions) for Adverb Clauses:
Introductory dependent clauses are set off from the following independent clause to which they
are connected by means of a comma. Most dependent clauses at the end of the sentence are not
set off. The exceptions are those indicating concession and sometimes cause.
Time:
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when
before
after
until
while
since
as
whenever
Place:


where
wherever
Concession:




although/though
even though
whereas
while
Cause:




because
as
since
for (only beginning a clause at the end of a sentence)
Result or purpose:

so that
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

so . . . + [adj.\adv.] + that
in order that
Condition:



if
even if
unless (if . . . not)
Manner:



as*
as if
as though
Comparison:



as + [adv./adj.] + as*
more + [adj./adv.] + than
less + [adj./adv.] + than
*Don't confuse the clause marker as and the preposition like. The sentence patterns that they
should be used in are different. As I said a minute ago, "Don't ask so many question right now."
or Omar is as tall as his brother is. vs. Raymond's cat is like his daughter's.
Although Phong was tired, he continued studying because he had an important examination in a
few hours.
Sally is as tall as her brother (is).
2. Clause Markers (= Subordinating Conjunctions) for Noun Clauses:
Noun clauses are dependent clauses that replace a noun in most locations in which a noun can be
used. Except occasionally for noun-clause objects formed from statements, clause markers
should always be included.
Noun clause formed from statements:

that
Noun clause formed from an exclamation:


how
what
Noun clause formed from a yes/no question:
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

whether (or not)
if (following ask)
Noun clause formed from an information question:

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
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



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who
what
which
when
why
where
whoever
whatever
whenever
how
how much
+ any of other words normally used as question words or phrases
That Barbara is going to agree to speak is uncertain. (Originally: Barbara is going to speak.)
Everybody is talking about how wonderful that new play is. (Originally: How wonderful that
new play is!)
I don't know whether the Samuelsons are going to come. (Originally: Are the Samuelsons going
to come?)
Economists are worried about how much credit card debt Americans have. (Originally: How
much credit card debt do Americans have?)
3. Clause Markers (= Subordinating Conjunctions) for Adjective Clauses:
An adjective clause follows the noun that it modifies and is placed after any phrases modifying
the same noun. A nonrestrictive adjective clause (= one that supplies extra information) is set
off from the remainder of the sentence with commas, while a restrictive clause (= one that is
necessary to confirm the identity of the word it modifies) is not.
People:



who
whom
whose
Things:


Place:
which/that
whose
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
where
Time:



when
after
before
The man whose mother just got off the airplane lost his briefcase.
Albert Einstein, who is one of the most noted scientists of all time, was a poor student in
elementary school.
I don't know the time when the party will start.
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Countable & Noncountable Nouns
Most nouns in English are countable. Countable nouns (C) refer to things that it is possible to
enumerate: one book, two hats, three elephants, four lions, and so on. Normally countable nouns
have both singular and plural forms. However, some (such as people, trousers, pajamas, scissors,
and binoculars), have only a plural form, and a few (like series and means) are always singular.
A small number (such as deer, sheep, and fish)use the same form for both singular and plural.
Noncountable nouns (= NC, or uncountable), on the other hand, cannot normally be counted.
For this reason noncountable nouns seldom use an indefinite article and almost never have a
plural form. However, exceptions like those described in the final section below do exist.
Types of Noncountable Nouns
As the following table illustrates, the two largest categories of noncountable nouns are
abstractions and mass nouns. Abstractions are the names of non-concrete things, that is, things
of the mind or emotions, or, in general, things which cannot be touched. This category also
includes sports and games, diseases, and the names of school subjects, professions, or
occupations.
Mass nouns refer to concrete things, that is, things that it is possible to touch. This category is
often separated into two subcategories: material nouns and generic nouns. The first of these,
material nouns, contains three main types of noncountables: 1. concrete objects that are difficult
or impossible to separate into parts or that are hard to hold without a container, such as liquids,
semi-liquids, and gasses; 2. things that can be converted relatively easily from one state into
another--from solid to liquid to gas and back again; 3. things that are composed of many similar,
almost indistinguishable particles. Generic nouns, on the other hand, are the names of groups or
categories of unlike items which can be talked about together because they are alike in at least
one important respect. The individual items within each group such as the knives, forks, and
spoons within the category of silverware) are generally countable. Exceptions do exist: a few
names of categories (vegetable) are countable, while a few items within some categories
(broccoli, celery, lettuce) are noncountable.
Noncountable Nouns:
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Abstractions
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love
hate
sympathy
compassion
enjoyment
relaxation
fun
speed
slowness
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intelligence
soccer
tennis
swimming
bridge
engineering
mathematics
Spanish
carpentry
Mass Nouns
o Material
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o
mutton
beef
bread
oil
milk
mud
oxygen
water
steam
ice
ice cream
copper
rice
wheat
grass
hair
flour
sand
Generic
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furniture
silverware
mail
luggage
fruit
meat
Double-Duty Words
Some noncountable nouns may also have one or more countable definitions in addition to the
noncountable one. Such nouns are called double-duty words. One example of such a word is
glass. You might, for instance, put on your glasses(C--plural only) to look through the dirty glass
(NC) in the window of your house to see if it is your friend who is drinking a glass (C--singular)
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of coke on the porch across the street. " Business," for instance, means "commerce in general,"
while " a business" designates the store, factory, or other location where the commerce is
conducted. " A chicken" is a bird running around in a farmyard or a whole bird bought at the
market, while " chicken" is the meat of " a hicken," meat possibly cut into serving portions ready
to be fried for dinner. To distinguish between countable and noncountable usages in something
that you are reading, note whether an indefinite article is used before a simple-form noun or
whether the plural is employed. If either an indefinite article or a plural is present, then the
countable meaning is the one intended.
Many nouns that have both countable and noncountable definitions come from verbs, and
frequently such words end with the suffixes - ment, - ion, and - ary. The noncountable sense of
words like observation,hesitation, and operation refers to the act itself, whereas the countable
definition designates the concrete product or result of the act:
Observation is important if scientists are going to get accurate results. vs. Bill made a nasty
observation about his brother's snoring.
Operation of a printing press requires training. vs. Bill had an operation to remove his tonsils last
week.
Special Circumstances
Other circumstances in which a noun that is normally noncountable can have a countable sense
are the following:
1. When what is being referred to is thought of as being in a container, then in informal
English it can become countable and be placed in the plural or be preceded by a or an.
He ordered a coffee and two teas from the counter attendant at the lunch stand.
He told her to give him several sugars also. (sugars = paper packets of sugar)
2. When "a kind of," "the kind of," or "some" is meant, a or an may be used before a simpleform noun, or the word may be made plural and have the meaning of "kinds of."
The cook fixed a meat and a fruit for lunch.
Many grains are grown in the United States.
3. When abstract nouns are modified by an adjective, an adjective phrase, or an adjective
clause, a is sometimes added. In many these sentences the indefinite article suggests the meaning
of "a kind of."
The lion snarled with a terrible, fear-inspiring ferocity.
The dog held onto the stick with a tenacity that surprised me.
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Dangling Modifiers
When a clause is reduced in such a manner that there is no obvious word for it to refer to, then an
error called a dangling modifier (dg) results. In other words, a dangling modifier is an unattached
expression within a sentence, usually at the beginning but sometimes at the end. Three major
types of dangling modifiers exist: the dangling participial phrase, the dangling infinitive phrase,
and the dangling elliptical clause.
Although there are many ways to correct dangling modifiers, two are most common. The first is
to leave an introductory phrase as it is and revise the main clause so that the subject of the
immediately following main clause does the action indicated in the reduced clause. (Frequently a
change from a passive sentence pattern to an active one--or the reverse--will eliminate a dangling
modifier.) The second way is to expand the dangling modifier into an absolute construction or a
dependent clause which contains the true referent of the participle, infinitive, or elliptical clause.
Following are examples of dangling modifiers and of ways to correct them. Note that even
though all of the changes indicated are correct English some are better than others. Try to avoid
passives, for instance.
The Dangling Participial Phrase
Faulty: Hearing the door opening, the surprise party began.
Correct: Hearing the door opening, the guests began the surprise party. (present participial
phrase referring to guests)
Correct: When the door was heard opening, the surprise party began.(adverb clause)
Correct: When the guests heard the door opening, the surprise party began. (adverb clause)
Correct: The guests hearing the door open, the surprise party began. (absolute construction)
Faulty:On finding the door unlocked, it was opened cautiously.
Correct:On finding the door unlocked, Bill opened it cautiously. (present participial phrase
referring to Bill )
Correct: Found unlocked, the door was opened cautiously. (past participial phrase referring to
door)
Correct: The door found unlocked, Bill opened it cautiously. (absolute construction)
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Faulty: The building was entered after replacing the broken lock.
Correct: The building was entered after the janitor replaced the broken lock.(adverb clause)
Correct: The building was entered after the lock had been replaced. (adverb clause)
Correct: After replacing the broken lock, the janitor entered the building. (present participial
phrase referring to janitor)
Correct: The janitor entered the building after replacing the broken lock.(present participial
phrase referring to janitor)
Correct: The janitor having replaced the broken lock, the tenants entered the building. (absolute
construction)
Faulty: Siriwan and Lim told Phong the truth about the broken window, having thought long and
hard. (more than one possible referent for the participle)
Correct: Having thought long and hard, Siriwan and Lim told Phong the truth about the broken
window.(phrase moved before the subject to clarify reference)
Correct: Siriwan and Lim told Phong the truth about the broken window after they had thought
long and hard.(adverb clause)
The Dangling Infinitive Phrase
Faulty:To answer the questions quickly, the driving manual must be studied carefully.
Correct: For the questions to be answered quickly, the driving manual must be studied carefully.
(passive infinitive phrase with its own subject)
Correct:To answer the questions quickly, you must study the driving manual carefully.(infinitive
phrase referring to you)
Correct: For you to answer the questions quickly, study the driving manual carefully.(infinitive
phrase with its own subject repeating the understood subject of the main clause, you)
Faulty: To find the solution, books on the subject must be looked for.
Correct: For you to find the solution, books on the subject must be looked for. (infinitive phrase
with its own subject)
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Correct: To find the solution, you must look for books on the subject. (infinitive phrase referring
to you)
Correct:To find the solution, look for books on the subject. (infinitive phrase referring to the
understood subjectyou)
The Dangling Elliptical Clause
Faulty: When five years old, Mary's grandmother took her on her first airplane trip.
Correct: When Mary was five years old, Mary's grandmother took her on her first airplane trip.
(adverb clause)
Correct: When five years old, Mary was taken on her first airplane trip by her
grandmother.(reduced adverb clause referring to Mary)
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English as a Second Language
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Articles
o Indefinite
o Definite
o Generic
Conjunctions and Conjunctive Adverbs
Countable vs. Noncountable Nouns
Personal Pronouns
Verb Tenses
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Faulty Parallelism
Faulty parallelism occurs when the elements put into pairs and series "go in different directions"
because they do not have the same form. In other words, nouns should be coordinated with
nouns, verbs with verbs, adjectives with adjectives, adverbs with adverbs, phrases with phrases,
and clauses with clauses. To check for faulty parallelism it is often useful to underline or
otherwise mark parallel (coordinate) elements. Following are three common types of faulty
parallelism: faulty pairs, the shifted series, and the "and who" or "and which" construction.
Faulty Pairs
Faulty: Few people were aware of his fear or how unhappy he was.(noun with noun clause)
Correct: Few people were aware of his fear or his deep unhappiness. (noun with noun)
Correct: Few people were aware of how much fear he felt or how unhappy he was.(clause with
clause )
Correct: Few people were aware of how fearful and unhappy he was.(adjective with adjective)
Faulty: Sam won applause from his audience with "Happy Days Are Here Again" and singing
other old, familiar songs.(noun [= song title] with ing-form and its object)
Correct: Sam won applause from his audience by singing "Happy Days Are Here Again" and
playing other old, familiar songs.(ing-form and object with ing-form and object)
Correct: Sam won applause from his audience by singing "Happy Days Are Here Again" and
other old, familiar songs. (noun with noun)
The Shifted Series
Faulty: George's report of the meeting was unclear, biased, and shouldn't have been
printed.(adjective with adjective with verb)
Correct: George's report of the meeting was unclearand biased, and it shouldn't have been with
printed. (adjective with adjective and clause with clause)
Faulty: Many students take up a sport for fun, relaxing, and so they can lose weight. (noun with
ing-form with clause)
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Correct: Many students take up a sport forfun and relaxation and for the purpose of losing
weight. (noun with noun and phrase with phrase)
Correct: Many students take up a sport to have fun,to relax, and to lose weight. (infinitive with
infinitive with infinitive)
Correct: Many students take up a sport so that they can have fun, relax, and lose weight.(verb
with verb with verb)
Faulty: Bill's roommate is tall, handsome, athletic, and has large feet. (adjective with adjective
with adjective with verb)
Correct: Bill's roommate is tall, handsome, and athletic, and he has large feet.(adjective with
adjective with adjective; clause with clause)
The "And Who" or "And Which" Construction
Faulty: Mary is a person with great creativity and who should be asked to help with the
program.(phrase with clause)
Correct: Mary has great creativity and should be asked to help with the program. (verb with
verb)
Correct: Mary is a person with great creativity, and she should be asked to help with the
program.(clause with clause)
Correct: Mary is a person with great creativity who should be asked to help with the program.
(no parallelism)
Faulty: That barn is a building having enough room to stable twelve horsesand which was built
by my great grandfather.(participial phrase with clause)
Correct: That barn is a building having enough room to stable twelve horses which was built by
my great grandfather. (no parallelism)
Correct: That barn with enough room to stable twelve horses was built by my great grandfather.
(no parallelism)
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Faulty Sentence Patterns
Fragments
By definition, sentence fragments are incomplete sentences. Two types are most common:
1. Part of the sentence, usually the subject or verb, is incomplete or missing:
Incorrect: Bill going to the store.
Correct: Bill is going to the store. (The ing-form was used as the main verb of the sentence
without the required auxiliary verb.)
Incorrect: Gone before they came.
Correct: Bill had gone before they came. (Here both the subject and part of the verb were
missing.)
A good rule to follow is never to use an ing-form or a past participle as a main verb unless you
also use a form of an auxiliary verb like have or be along with it.
2. A dependent clause is used alone, without being attached to a related independent clause.
Perhaps the main reason that fragments of this type occur is that a writer fails to recognize that a
word is classified as a subordinating conjunction or clause marker rather than as a coordinating
conjunction or a conjunctive adverb. Compare lists of such words in "Conjunctions and
Conjunctive Adverbs."
Incorrect: Because he was happy.
Correct: Jerry laughed out loud because he was happy.
Incorrect: When they arrive at their mother's house.
Correct: When they arrive at their mother's house, they will discover that everyone else has
already arrived.
Note that the dependent clause can come either before or after the main clause. When the
dependent clause is first, then it is followed by a comma. When it comes second, then a comma
is not normally employed.
Exceptions: There are two exceptions to the warning against incomplete sentences: first,
incomplete sentences are acceptable in some informal writing because they imitate
conversational English, and, second, writing that uses parallelism occasionally contains
incomplete sentences because the repetition in the pattern facilitates understanding.
Run-Together Sentences
A run-together sentence (RT) (sometimes called a fused sentence) is the putting together of two
independent clauses into one sentence with no mark of punctuation or coordinating conjunction
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between them. There are usually a number of acceptable ways to change a run-together sentence
into a correct sentence. Probably the simplest ways of correcting such an error are
separating the run-together sentence into two sentences or making it into a compound
sentence by adding a coordinating conjunction or a semicolon. Changing the run-together
sentence into a complex sentence is also often possible. The method of revision depends upon
the context and the writer's purpose.
Incorrect: Joe telephoned his mother knocked on the door a few minutes later.
Correct: Joe telephoned. His mother knocked on the door a few minutes later. (2 simple
sentences)
Correct: Joe telephoned, and his mother knocked on the door a few minutes later. (compound
sentence)
Correct: Joe telephoned; his mother knocked on the door a few minutes later. (compound
sentence)
Correct: A few minutes after Joe telephoned, his mother knocked on the door. (complex
sentence)
Correct: Joe telephoned a few minutes before his mother knocked on the door. (complex
sentence)
In the original sentence above, it isn't immediately obvious whether "his mother" is the direct
object of "telephoned" in the first clause or the subject of "knocked" in the second clause. Only
after rereading the sentence does it become apparent that "his mother" did the knocking and may
or may not have been the person Joe telephoned. Revising the sentence in one of the indicated
ways prevents the momentary confusion. All of the corrections have about the same meaning,
but the stress is different.
The confusion about what the writer means is even greater in the following example. Even
rereading the sentence does not clarify which independent clause the dependent clause modifies.
Thus, either of two different meanings is possible.
Incorrect: Joe saw the man after the dog ran past the man threw a rock through the window of
the house.
Correct: Joe saw the man after the dog ran past. The man threw a rock through the window of
the house.
Correct: Joe saw the man. After the dog ran past, the man threw a rock through the window of
the house.
Comma Splices
A comma splice (CS) is similar to a run-together sentence in that it also involves the faulty
combination of two independent clauses into a single sentence. The difference is that instead of
no punctuation existing between the clauses, a comma is used where a stronger connection is
needed. The mistake occurs because the writer is unaware that a comma is generally used by
itself only within a sentence (in a series, for instance, or before and/or after a dependent clause),
not between two structures that could be separate sentences. If a comma is used between two
independent clauses in a compound sentence, a coordinating conjunction must be used along
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with it. The methods of correcting a comma splice are the same as those for correcting a runtogether sentence: changing it into two separate sentences, a compound sentence, or a complex
sentence.
Incorrect: Joe yelled at the man, the man called the police.
Correct: Joe yelled at the man. The man called the police. (2 simple sentences)
Correct: Joe yelled at the man; the man called the police. (compound sentence
Correct: Joe yelled at the man, and the man called the police. (compound sentence)
Correct: Joe yelled at the man before the man called the police. (complex sentence)
Correct: Because Joe yelled at the man, the man called the police. (complex sentence)
Another common cause of comma splices (and sometimes of run-together sentences) is the
mistaken belief that a transition word like then or however can be substituted for a coordinating
conjunction like and, but, or or. The reason such a substitution cannot be made is that, unlike a
conjunction, both time words and conjunctive adverbs can occur in the middle or at the end of a
clause, not just at its beginning. A sentence beginning with such a word must be punctuated as if
the word were not present. (See "Conjunctions and Conjunctive Adverbs" for a list of these
words and for brief directions on how to form and punctuate sentences containing them.)
Incorrect: The police came, then they took the man away.
Correct: The police came. Then they took the man away. (2 simple sentences)
Correct: The police came; then they took the man away. (compound sentence)
Correct: The police came, and then they took the man away. (compound sentence)
Correct: When the police came, they took the man away. {complex sentence}
Run-On Sentences
The fourth type of faulty sentence, the run-on sentence (RO), is different from the other three
types just discussed. Unlike the others, its clauses are complete and usually correctly connected
to each other by means of such coordinating conjunctions as and, but, so, and and so. The
problem here is that there are too many independent clauses in the same sentence. Because of the
excessive length of such a sentence and the failure to indicate which ideas are more important
than others, confusion (or boredom) often results. Breaking up the long sentence into several
shorter sentences and/or by subordinating parts of the sentence to the remainder generally
improves it. Reducing some of the clauses to phrases or even single words also helps.
Unsatisfactory: Bill needed to get a new driver's license, and he had to take the written test over
again, so he had to study a booklet listing these laws, and so he studied for several weeks, and he
took the test and passed it.
Improved: When Bill needed to get a new driver's license, he had to take the written test over
again. Because he didn't know the driving laws well enough, he had to study a booklet listing
these laws. He took the test after studying for several weeks and passed it.
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Focusing & Organizing Composition
After you have generated ideas and determined what you plan to write about in general, the next
step is is narrowing down both the topic and the focus of your paper by devising a thesis
statement or topic sentence clearly indicating your purpose for the entire paper. Then, after
checking whether you have enough relevant supporting details, a clear order (both within the
individual paragraphs and the paper as a whole), and an idea of possible connecting words and
details, write a draft of your paper, as quickly as possible. Be sure to mark problem areas and jot
down questions and ideas for possible changes as you go along. Don't forget--the three stages of
the writing process frequently overlap! Thus, some revising may occur during the writing stage,
and some generating of ideas may occur during the revising/proofreading stage.
Characteristics of Good Compositions
In order for a composition to be clear, interesting, and persuasive, it must have four
characteristics: unity, sufficient concrete supporting details, a clear ordering of information, and
coherence.
1. Unity
If a composition has unity, it gives the reader the feeling that everything belongs, that it contains
nothing irrelevant. Most experienced writers focus on a thesis statement or topic sentence stated
somewhere in the composition, usually at or near the beginning, in order to ensure that unity
exists. While professional writers sometimes omit a written topic sentence for a particular
paragraph, they always have one in mind during the process of writing that paragraph.
Both a thesis statement and a topic sentence (= TS) have exactly the same function. The main
difference between them is the length of the compositions they govern. A thesis statement
controls an entire composition of several or many paragraphs, while a topic sentence normally
controls a single paragraph or section of a larger essay. Both a thesis statement and a topic
sentence can be divided into two parts: a topic (= the subject to be written about) and a
controlling idea or CI (= the focus of the composition or paragraph). The controlling idea is
most often the opinion that the writer has about the topic or the attitude that he or she has toward
it:
The student on the Board of Regents [should be allowed to vote]. (topic + CI=opinion)
The day [was cold and depressing]. (topic + CI=attitude)
Because a thesis statement governs a longer piece of writing than does a topic sentence, both the
subject to be discussed and the controlling idea can be broader. Finally, the location of a thesis
statement or topic sentence within a composition or a paragraph often affects how apparent the
unity and organizational pattern are to the reader. For this reason a thesis statement usually
appears at the end of the introduction of an essay (next to the first section supporting it in the
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paragraph immediately following the introduction), while a topic sentence is commonly the first
sentence of a paragraph.
One method of checking for unity is what one author calls the " because test." To use this test,
pick out the thesis statement of the composition or the topic sentence of the paragraph and say,
"This statement is true because of what?" Anything that fits into the category of "what" is
relevant and belongs in the composition. Anything that doesn't fit into that category should
probably be omitted. In other words, all of the major supports of a thesis statement or topic
sentence are those sentences that clearly and directly support the controlling idea part of the
thesis statement or topic sentence, not just sentences that are about the stated topic alone. (In a
composition of several paragraphs the major supports of the thesis statement will probably be the
topic sentences of the various paragraphs or sections.) Minor supports of a thesis statement or a
topic sentence are all the responses to a similar statement asked after a particular major support
and are usually statements of fact. If desired, a question such as "Why?," "How?," "Who?,"
"When?," or "For example?" can be substituted for the above statement containing because. The
trick is to use the same statement or question throughout the checking process at the same level.
The question can be switched whenever the level is switched.
2. Concrete Unified Support
Concrete details--and the specific diction used to state them--are what make any piece of writing
clear, convincing, and interesting. Because Americans customarily have a "Prove it!" attitude, it
is usually best to give enough information so that the reader sees, feels, and hears what is
happening and can then arrive at the conclusion the writer wants him to reach seemingly "on his
own," without having to rely solely on the opinion of someone he probably doesn't know. Even if
the reader doesn't in the end agree with the writer's conclusion, the writer can consider himself
successful if his reader is willing to say, "I don't agree with you, but I understand why you
believe as you do."
Many methods exist for getting details relevant to the discussion of a topic down on paper so that
there is something to work with. Three of the four methods of generating ideas described in
"Getting Started" (the laundry list, rapid writing, and thought links) can include supporting
details. In addition, the because test that was mentioned above as a means of checking unity can
also be used early in the writing process to help find relevant information to support a thesis
statement or topic sentence. To use the because test in this way, write down a thesis statement or
a topic sentence, and ask yourself, for instance, why you believe the statement to be true, how
you came to feel as you do about it, or what kind of examples of the idea exist. As long as the
same question is asked over and over, the resulting details will automatically support the thesis
statement or topic sentence in a unified manner. If one of the answers (that is, one of the
supports) needs reinforcement, ask the same question or a different question about that support
repeatedly.
3. Order
There are almost as many different organizational patterns--and ways of ordering ideas within
these overall patterns--as there are subjects to write about. In general, though, most writing done
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in American schools, newspapers, and magazines is linear: that is, the writer tells the reader
what he is going to discuss (in a thesis statement or a topic sentence), discusses it (by means of
major and minor supports), and then tells the reader that he has done so (in a conclusion, which
often restates or refers to the thesis statement or topic sentence). There is no going off on
tangents or polite circling around the topic. The organization is direct and to the point. There are
no surprises.
The most common type of writing in both schools and the mass media is explanation
(sometimes called expository writing), but narration, description, and argumentation are also
sometimes used. The category of explanation includes such subcategories as process analysis,
illustration, comparison/contrast, and cause and effect, but other subcategories such as definition
do exist and are sometimes employed. The subject matter and the writer's purpose determine the
pattern or combination of patterns in a particular piece of writing.
Note, however, that just choosing an overall pattern of organization for a composition is often
insufficient. The writer should also have in mind a reason for ordering the ideas and details
within the larger pattern. Without such a guide, what is written may be so jumbled that the reader
is bored or even completely confused. Among the common orders are time order, space order,
and order of importance (least important to most important or the reverse).
4. Coherence
The final major characteristic of a good composition is coherence. If a composition has good
coherence, then all of the ideas seem to "stick together," or cohere, rather than jump abruptly
from point to point. A coherent composition moves smoothly and logically from one idea to the
next, and its sentences seem to "flow" from one to another so easily that the reader doesn't waste
time wondering what the connection between one idea and the next is or trying to think up
examples that illustrate or support a generalization. Everything needed is already present, and
each section is clearly linked to the thesis or topic sentence.
Good coherence results from a combination of many different things: unity, adequate concrete
support, clear order, repetition of key words and phrases, and the use of transition words and
expressions as "signposts" directing the reader from place to place and from subtopic to subtopic.
Even the crafting of sentence patterns to place the stress on the most important ideas or to put
similar ideas in similar positions within one or more clauses or sentences is a part of coherence.
In short, a coherent composition is one where ideas can be found in expected locations and
where all necessary connecting words and details have been included.
Good and Bad Topic Sentences
Thesis statements and topic sentences (TS) play an important role in ensuring the unity of a
piece of writing. The most important thing to remember is that for unity to exist the supporting
details must fit with both the topic and the controlling idea (CI), not just with the topic. Several
characteristics of good thesis statements and topic sentences are listed below, followed by
examples of common types of faulty topic sentences:
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Characteristics of Good Topic Sentences:
a. A thesis statement or topic sentence must assert an opinion or attitude about the subject
to be discussed, and the assertion must contain both a topic and a controlling idea. In other
words, a thesis statement or topic sentence must spell out the particular judgment about a specific
topic that the writer wishes to prove or explain to the reader. It must be arguable, something
about which more than one opinion can exist. Cats make better pets than dogs. Pepsico uses
unfair techniques to lure consumers into buying its products. My room in Binneweis Hall has all
the comforts of home.
b. A thesis statement or topic sentence must be limited enough for the composition to be
developed sufficiently in the allotted space. A topic or a controlling idea that is too big cannot
be adequately supported with concrete details and reasons within the length of the assignment.
For instance, the following idea couldn't be discussed within the length of a short composition:
"World War II led to the modernization of industrial facilities in Japan." A long article--or even a
book--would be necessary to do this topic justice.
c. A thesis statement or topic sentence must be clearly stated. Pronoun references should be
plain, and word choice should be as exact as possible, since imprecise or vague words may cause
the reader to misunderstand. Furthermore, words expressing personal preference such as "good,"
"bad," "awful," terrible," "wonderful," and "beautiful" should usually be avoided, since they
indicate little more than the fact that you like or don't like whatever it is you're discussing.
Moreover, since everybody has a slightly different interpretation of such words, a statement
containing one of these words is difficult to support adequately.
d. Only a single topic and controlling idea relationship should exist. More than one topic or
controlling idea might cause the writer to drift away from a consistent focus and lead to a
composition lacking in unity and containing irrelevant details. Don't, for instance, say "My
school requires students to take too many useless classes, and the required recreational activities
aren't good either." Either omit one of the clauses, or substitute a broader statement that both of
these ideas support, such as, The curriculum at my school needs improvement. Another way to
improve such a topic sentence is to subordinate one of the clauses so that the more important
idea stands out.Note the difference between the following sentences: Vacationing in the Rockies
can be a lot of fun, but horrible things can happen there too. vs. Although vacationing in the
Rockies can be a lot of fun, my vacation there last summer was a total disaster. In the first
sentence the writer has two equal focuses, "fun" and "horrible things," but in the second the
primary emphasis is clearly "disaster."
e. Although it is not required to do so, a good thesis statement or topic sentence often
indicates the organization of the composition. Instead of saying "McDonald's is better than the
cafeteria in my school," say "The quick service, the tasty food, and the low cost make
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McDonald's a better place for a poor student to eat than my school's cafeteria." Not only is the
pattern of organization clearer, but the CI is narrower and more specific.
Types of Bad Topic Sentences:
Bad topic sentences and theses lack one or more of the above qualities. Although many types of
unacceptable thesis statements and topic sentences exist, including questions and definitions, a
majority fall into four categories: statement of fact, title, announcement of the topic, and
more than one topic and/or controlling idea.
1. A statement of fact = a statement whose truth or falseness can be determined and agreed upon
if it is checked out
Unacceptable: George W. Bush won the 2004 election.
Possible TS: The wrong (or right) man won the election.
2. A title = a word or phrase indicating the topic, not a complete sentence
Unacceptable: Running a successful business.
Possible TS: Running a successful business isn't easy.
3. An announcement of the topic = a complete sentence indicating the topic but omitting a
controlling idea
Unacceptable: I would like to tell you about my younger sister. or My topic today is my younger
sister.
Possible TS: My younger sister can do anything she puts her mind to.
4. More than one topic and/or controlling idea
Unacceptable: Kevin is a prize-winning sculptor, and his brother is a talented pianist.
Possible TS: The Smith brothers prove that good educations are possible in small towns.
A Sample Explanatory Paragraph
The following breakdown of a paragraph into levels of generality demonstrates the manner in
which eneralizations and facts work together to produce a composition and illustrates the ways in
which the four characteristics of good compositions mentioned above work together. In general,
broad generalizations are supported by narrower generalizations and facts. Since the overall
organizational pattern of the paragraph is the explanatory (or expository) pattern, the
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paragraph begins with a topic sentence, and a series of major and minor supports follow. The
because test can be employed to check whether all the major supports have the same kind of
relationship to the thesis and whether the supporting details have similar connections to their
corresponding major supports. The majority of the details are placed in time order, and,
accordingly, most of the transition words indicate the times in which the actions take place,
although expressions signaling contrast, addition, and other relationships are also present.
Among the other coherence techniques the writer employs are the repetition of key words and
references to key ideas: for instance, "enemy" and "not my friend."
Topic Sentence: Ivan is my enemy.
Major: I first began to suspect that he wasn't my friend in the fourth grade when he tried to trip
me whenever I walked past his desk.
Major: Then in the fifth grade my homework papers started disappearing whenever he was left
alone in the room with them.
Major: In the sixth grade I noticed my classmates look at me disapprovingly and turn their backs
when I approached.
Minor: After asking a number of people, I found out that Ivan had told all of them that I had
cheated on the last history test, causing the curve to be much higher than it should have been.
Minor: He even told them that the teacher knew I had cheated but didn't care because she liked
me and wanted me to get the best grade in the class.
Minor: When I confronted him, he claimed to be surprised that anyone would take his little joke
seriously.
Major: However, what made me certain that Ivan was more than just a jerk with a weird sense of
humor occurred later that same year.
Minor: One morning in early February the principal called me into his office to question me
about a shoplifting incident in a nearby store.
Minor: Someone--Ivan--had reported seeing me stash stolen pens in my locker.
Minor: Fortunately, the owner of the store knew me and was certain I hadn't been in the store at
the time the pens had disappeared.
Minor: Ivan eventually confessed to stealing the pens in order to get me into trouble.
Conclusion: This incident, on top of all of the previous ones, proved to me without the shadow
of a doubt that Ivan is my enemy.
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The Writing Process
Writing is a process, consisting of a planning stage, a writing stage, and a revising and
proofreading stage. These three stages of the writing process can, and often do, overlap.
Reorganization, for instance, can take place in the middle of the writing stage as well as during
the revision stage. Proofreading of one section of a piece of writing might occur in the middle of
the generating of ideas or the devising of a thesis statement or topic sentence for another part.
To a large extent, though, the three stages are followed in order. In the planning stage, ideas are
generated, a topic sentence or thesis statement is selected, an overall plan of organization is
developed, and supporting details decided upon. In the writing stage, ideas are written down in
sentence form as rapidly as possible according to the previously developed plan. Finally, in the
revision/proofreading stage, sentences are changed so that they are more accurate or polished,
words are checked for exactness, and concrete details are evaluated for adequacy and relevance.
Here, too, errors in sentence structure, grammar, and mechanics are looked for and corrected.
Because writing is a process, the first draft should never be considered the only or final version.
Keeping this rule in mind takes off some of the pressure to make everything "perfect" the first
time. What is on paper can--and should--be changed many times before it is turned in. For many
people, using a computer makes it easier to remember that what is written is not necessarily
permanent, since substitutions, the keeping of multiple versions, and the use of non-printing
comments are so simple. Nevertheless, whether you use a computer or the traditional pencil and
paper, avoid getting so attached to what you write that you fail to change it even when it doesn't
fit the context or the purpose.
Generating Ideas
Probably the hardest part of writing for most people is getting started. Following are four ways to
get ideas on paper so that you can work with them:
1. The Laundry List
This method is much like what you might guess from the title. It is the writing down of a list of
words and phrases related to a given topic in no particular order. At the end of three to five
minutes the writer looks over the list and groups similar ideas together. Next, he or she classifies
ideas within each group as generalizations or concrete supports and ranks the ideas by order of
importance or some other logical method. The writer repeats the process as often as necessary to
get enough ideas to write one or more topic sentences. After selecting a topic sentence, the writer
checks the listed details for relevance and concreteness and makes appropriate additions and
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deletions before starting to write the paper itself. Following is an example of such a laundry list
at an early stage in the process of generating ideas:
Television
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too much violence
favorite shows
news programs
how to repair
domestics vs. foreign
how invented
HDTV vs. analog TV
3 networks vs. cable channels
high cost of cable
satellite TV
2. Rapid Writing
Rapid writing is similar to the laundry list method in that no attempt is made to organize ideas as
they are written down. The major difference is that sentences are used instead of words and
phrases. To use this method, set a timer for three to five minutes, and start writing. Continue
writing until the timer dings. Keep your pencil moving or your fingers typing during the entire
time period, even if you have to write "I can't think of anything to write" or over and over again.
(The amazing thing is that most people get so tired of writing the same sentence repeatedly that
they do think of something to write before the time period is over.) At the end of the writing
period, look over what you have on paper. Circle an interesting idea, and write for another three
to five minutes about that. Repeat the process until there are enough ideas on paper for you to
write one more topic sentences or thesis statements.
3. Thought Links (= Mind Mapping)
To use thought links to generate ideas, draw a circle or square in the middle of a piece of paper,
and write the topic inside it. Then each time you think of an idea related to the topic, jot it down
on a line drawn out from the square, one line for each major idea. If an idea supports or explains
a major idea, draw a line out from the line containing the corresponding major idea and put the
supporting idea there. After about five minutes or so, examine what you have written. If enough
specific ideas exist to permit you to write one or more topic sentences about the topic, do so. If
the ideas stated are still too broad for you to write concretely about the topic in the allotted
length, circle an interesting subtopic, and write a separate thought link about that. Repeat the
procedure until you have sufficiently narrowed the topic and gathered enough supporting details
to write the composition.
4. Webbing:
Webbing is similar to thought links in that the process starts with the topic placed in a square or
circle in the middle of a sheet of paper. However, instead of permitting an almost unlimited
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number of lines for subtopics from the circle (many of them with other lines containing
supporting details attached), webbing surrounds the topic with no more than three levels of five
boxes each. The innermost boxes each hold a subtopic. The second level of five boxes poses a
question about the subtopic in the corresponding box in the inner circle. If desired, an additional
set of boxes outside the second set gives answers to the questions. These answers are potential
topic sentences. (This method is called webbing because the final product resembles a spider
web when circles are used.)
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Online Resources
Dictionaries & Thesauruses
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Dictionary.com
Merriam Webster
English as a Second Language
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Learn English
Tower of English
Service Word List
Idiom of the Day
Grammar and Writing
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Purdue Online Writing Lab
Research
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APA Style Tips
Translation

Dictionary.com
Vocabulary
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
Levels Tests
Insight In
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Language Terms
Following is a list of terms frequently used in language classes. When an abbreviation is
commonly used either as a marking symbol in compositions or as a label in examples, the
abbreviation precedes the term.
absolute constructions: a reduced adverb or adjective clause which includes its own
subject. The subject of the absolute construction differs from the subject of the main clause in
the case of the adverb clause or from its antecedent in the case of the adjective clause. Like
participial phrases resulting from sentence reductions, absolutes can indicate time and/or cause.
To indicate same-time activity, the present participle is used in the absolute construction, just as
it is in a participial phrase. However, the only way to indicate time sequence in an absolute
construction is to employ the perfect participle, since clause markers indicating time sequence
aren't permitted. Passive forms are possible.The children playing quietly for once, their mother
was able to read a chapter or two in her new library book. (reduced adverb clause--cause/same
time) The children having gone to bed, their parents relaxed by listening to music. (reduced
adverb clause--time sequence) His father having been admitted to the hospital, Bob was unable
to concentrate in class. (reduced passive adverb clause--cause and/or cause + time
sequence) The young men, all of them prospective SDSU football players, enjoyed themselves
at the party given by the Alumni Association. (reduced adjective clause--same time) The trees in
the forest, all of them having caught fire as a result of a carelessly tossed away cigarette butt,
were completely burned. (reduced adjective clause--time sequence)
(adj) adjective: the modifier of a noun. It can be a single word, a phrase, or a clause. That is a
frisky horse, but the horse with a white foot is very calm. Joe, who lives on a ranch, owns both.
(adv) adverb: the modifier of an adjective, a verb, or another adverb. It can be a single word, a
phrase, or a clause. Samantha is too small to reach the top shelf. My roommate runs very
quickly. Drive with care. Although Tiffany lives in Hawaii, she doesn't surf.
antecedent: the noun that a pronoun or a clause marker refers to. Bill is coming. He'll be late,
though. Two people who are new in town are coming also. (Bill is the antecedent of he, and
people is the antecedent of who.)
(Aux) auxiliary verb: a form of the verbs be, have, or do or one of the modal auxiliaries (will,
would, shall, should, ought to, can, could, may, might, and must) used along with a main verb to
form a verb tense. Kevin is working in the computer lab, but he should be cooking a meal for his
parents, since he has invited them to dinner. They don't visit him often.
clause: a word group consisting of at least one subject and one verb and any objects,
complements, and modifiers. Before you met her, Judy was a star volleyball player. (2 clauses: 1
dependent + 1 independent) See dependent clause, independent clause, and elliptical clause.
(CM) clause marker: a word introducing a dependent clause that indicates the relationship of
the clause to something else in the sentence and signals that the information in the clause in
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which it is located is less important than information in the clause to which it is attached. See
subordinating conjunction.
(compl) complement: a noun or adjective following a linking verb like be that either renames or
describes the subject. See predicate noun and predicate adjective. Kumar is a cricket player.
He is quite good.
(cx) complex sentence: a sentence consisting of one independent clause and one or more
dependent clauses. Jennifer and Andy always stay with friends when they visit the Twin Cities.
Because Joe enrolled late, he had to make up a lot of work when he finally did sign up. See
dependent clause, independent clause, and subordinating conjunction or clause marker.
(cd) compound sentence: a sentence consisting of two or more independent clauses joined most
commonly by a coordinating conjunction, a semicolon, or a colon. Kimberly enjoys singing, and
she is thinking about joining the women's choir. Bill bought tickets for the concert; however, he
couldn't go at the last minute. The tornado last June was a disaster for my family: it blew down
our barn, dropped a tree on our house, and carried off our dog.
(cd-cx) compound-complex sentence: a sentence consisting of two or more independent clauses
and one or more dependent clauses. Whenever a rodeo comes to Swiftel Center, the rodeo club
buys a block of tickets, and they go to a performance as a group.
(cdS) compound subject: two or more subjects in a clause. See Subject.
(cdV) compound verb: two or more verbs in a clause. See Verb.
conjunction: a connecting word. See coordinating conjunctions and subordinating
conjunctions.
conjunctive adverb: words like however, moreover, and nevertheless which commonly serve as
transitions between clauses and sentences. They can appear at the beginning, in the middle, or at
the end of a clause, but they are always in the second of two related independent clauses. In a
compound sentence the clause containing a conjunctive adverb is preceded by a semicolon or by
a comma and a coordinating conjunction, never by a comma alone. Words of this sort are
sometimes called coordinating adverbs. The children hate to pick up their toys before bed; they
must do so, nevertheless. The men's choir concert was last night. However, Mary was too busy to
go.
contraction: the combining of two words, usually a pronoun and a verb, into one by the use of
an apostrophe: it's = it is, don't = do not, he's = he is or he has Contractions are considered
conversational, so they are not normally employed in academic writing.
coordinating conjunctions: connecting words like and, or, and but that are used to join words
and ideas of equal importance.
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(coord) coordination: combining ideas so that they have equal importance. Coordinating
conjunctions are often employed in the process.
(dep) dependent clause: a group of words containing a subject and verb that cannot stand alone
as a sentence. Such a clause usually begins with a subordinating conjunction (sometimes
called a clause marker). See subordinate clause.
(DO) direct object: a word or group of words that receives the action of a verb. It is usually a
thing, but it can be a person. It can be identified in a sentence by asking a question beginning
with "what" after the verb.Bill hit the ball. (What did Bill hit? The ball. Ball is the direct object
of hit.) Maria saw Sue. (What--or who--did Maria see? Sue is the direct object of saw.)
elliptical clause: a construction in which some words are omitted but are still understood. Such a
construction is correct as long as it is clear what the missing word or words are. Elliptical clauses
are especially common in comparative sentence patterns: Few children are as intelligent and
handsome as one's own (are). Bill can never find a better car than (he can) at Einspar's. The
words in parentheses are the ones that are usually omitted.
exclamation: a type of sentence or expression ending in an exclamation mark that indicates
strong emotion about the topic: What a beautiful day it is out! How happy Zara was! Oh no!
How horrible!
expletive: the words there and it used as place-holders in the subject position at the beginning of
sentences in which the true subject follows the verb. There is a bird on the roof. (A bird is on the
roof.) It is surprising how fast birds can fly. (How fast birds can fly is surprising.)
gerund: the ing-form (present participle) of a verb used as a noun. If the objects, complements,
and/or modifiers of the gerund are included, it is called a gerund phrase. Walking downtown
from campus takes a long time. Teachers forbid talking between students while a lecture is in
progress.
(Indep) independent clause: a clause that can stand alone as a sentence. It is sometimes called a
main clause. The two cats like to sleep on top of the refrigerator.
(IO) indirect object: the noun or pronoun (usually a person) to or for whom an action is done. It
can be identified in a sentence by asking a question beginning "to whom or for whom" about an
action. Mary bought her mother a present. (Who did Mary buy a present for? Her mother. Her
mother is the indirect object.) Sam bought his car four new tires. (For whom--or what--did Sam
buy four new tires? His car. His car is the indirect object in this sentence.) Sometimes the
indirect object is a prepositional phrase beginning with to or for. Annie wrote down a Swedish
recipe for her friend. The friend gave to everyone who asked what Annie had located for her.
indirect quotation: See reported speech.
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infinitive: to + simple verb, used as a unit as a noun substitute or as an adjective or adverb
modifier: to sing. (Past, passive, and continuous forms exist, but they aren't used as commonly:
to have jumped, to have been owned, to have been talking)
ing-form: the form of a verb ending in -ing. Others names for this term are present participle,
participle, and gerund.
intransitive verb: a verb that does not have a direct object. Ghada often walks to the mall with
her friends. (See direct object and transitive verb.)
main clause: See independent clause.
modifier: a word, phrase, or clause that describes or qualifies another word. See adjective and
adverb.
noun: a word naming a person, place, or thing. If the noun is capitalized (like Mr. Jones or
Puerto Rico) to show it is the name of a particular person or thing, it called a proper noun. If it
is not capitalized (like man, country, or dog), it is called a common noun. Two types of nouns
exist: countable nouns and uncountable nouns (also called noncountable nouns). Countable
nouns have singular and plural forms and usually require a or an before them in the singular,
while uncountable nouns normally have only a single form. a book or books, a child or children,
a hypothesis or hypotheses vs. tennis, water, sand, pork, or knowledge.
parallelism: The most basic definition of parallelism is the putting of similar ideas into similar
structures and positions in sentences to make it easier to follow the writer's train of thought. In
other words, a writer normally pairs nouns with nouns, phrases with phrase, or clauses with
clauses. Betty likes to cook, clean, and decorate her house. Joe often goes to the International
Coffee with Su, Tagir, and Roberto. Jared always eats low-fat sandwiches, but his brother snarfs
down pizzas. Parallelism, however, often goes beyond emphasizing the forms of words to
emphasizing the sounds of the words themselves. At times the stress on sound and rhythm is so
great that the effect is almost like poetry. In "The Gettysburg Address" Lincoln uses the words
"[. . .] that government of the people, by the people, for the people shall not perish from the
earth."
participle, past: a verb form ending in -d or -ed when the verb is regular. It usually functions as
part of a main verb, but it can also be employed as an adjective. When it is used as an adjective,
it indicates an action that is already completed as opposed to one still in process. (See present
participle.) boiled water vs. boiling water (Boiled water may be either hot or cold, but boiling
water is at 212 degrees Fahrenheit.)
participle, present: the ing-form of a verb. It can serve as part of a continuous tense verb, as a
noun, or as an adjective. When it is used as an adjective, the terms participle and participial use
are often employed, and the emphasis is usually on an action in process (a talking dog) or on the
effect of one person or situation on another (an exciting football game). (See past participle.)
When a present participle is used as a noun substitute, it is called a gerund. Speaking in front of
a large group frightens me.
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phrase: a group of words used as a unit which lacks a subject and/or a verb. A noun phrase is a
noun and all its modifiers. The tallest player on the basketball team is a Dinka from Sudan. A
gerund phrase is a present participle used as a noun and any subjects, objects, or complements
that it might have. Knowing the answer doesn't mean that solving a problem is easy. A
participial phrase is a present or past participle plus any subjects, objects, complements, and
modifiers. A student living with a lot of other students may not get a lot of sleep. The child
frightened by the dog couldn't stop screaming. A prepositional phrase is a preposition with its
object and any modifiers. The football player kicked by the opposing linebacker limped off the
field. A verb phrase is a main verb and all auxiliary verbs. Governor Rounds has been working
on increasing research in the state of South Dakota.
(P) predicate or complete predicate: a verb or verb phrase and any objects, complements, and
modifiers that go along with it. Our team was upset about losing the championship game. A
simple predicate is the verb or verb phrase without objects, modifiers, or complements. The
opposing team was overjoyed.
predicate adjective: an adjective following a linking verb that describes the subject. It is one
type of complement. Marian was happy about the results.
predicate noun: a noun following a linking verb that renames the subject. It is one type of
complement. Andrea was the hero of the game.
(prep) preposition: a word placed before a noun or noun substitute that shows the relationship
of the noun to another word in the sentence. Unlike a clause marker, a preposition is never
followed by a pattern containing a subject and a main verb. Because a few words like before and
after can be employed as either a preposition or a clause marker, it is necessary to examine the
structure that follows such a word in order to correctly classify it (after dinner vs. after we eat
dinner). A prepositional phrase is often used as an adjective or an adverb. Soha is sitting in the
corner next to her brother.
(pron) pronoun: a single word that can substitute for a noun. Each one should refer to an
antecedent. The personal pronouns are I,you, he, she, it, we, and they. The forms can shift
from the subject forms given here to object forms, possessive forms, and reflexive forms.
question word or phrase: the word or words used to begin an information question that tell
what kind of information is desired. How long are you going to be gone, and who is going with
you? What flavor ice cream does Bill want?
question, information: a type of question in which part of the information is missing, and a
question word or a question phrase substitutes for it: Who was the woman I saw you with last
night? My ex-girlfriend. What make car are you going to buy? A Ford or a Honda.
question, tag: a type of question having the structure of a statement followed by a "tag" which is
answered by yes or no. It can be used to ask for information or just to keep the conversation
going, depending on whether the intonation rises or falls at the end of the sentence: It was
someone you didn't know well, wasn't it? The ball didn't cross the twenty-fifth yard line, did it?
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question, yes/no: a type of question whose answer is typically "yes" or "no": Was it Mrs.
Jones? Does Tabitha know the answer? Has Jean arrived yet?
reported speech: a type of writing in which what was originally a direct quotation is imbedded
within another sentence as a noun clause object. Megan told Chad that the TV was on the
fritz. (Originally: Megan said, "Chad, the TV is on the Fritz.") Chad asked if she had called the
repair shop. (Originally: Chad asked, "Have you called the repair shop?") Megan asked him
what time he wanted the repairman to come. (Originally: Megan asked him, "What time do you
want the repairman to come?")
s-form of the verb: the third person singular form of the present tense of a verb: It goes. He
walks. She talks.
sentence: a group of words consisting of at least one independent clause. It can be a statement, a
question, or an exclamation.
simple form (of noun or verb): the form of the word found in the dictionary, without any
endings indicating number or tense: be, go, defend, hallucinate
(Simple) simple sentence: a sentence containing one independent clause and no dependent
clauses. The movie depicts the life of a college student with a secret identity.
statement: the type of sentence ending in a period. Andy enjoys going to the movies.
(S) subject: a word or words that name who the sentence is about. The subject may or may not
be the doer of an action, and while it is usually located before the verb, it may be after it. The
simple subject is a noun or noun substitute without any modifiers, but the complete subject
includes modifiers as well. In the following sentence the complete subject is underlined: The two
boys on the high school football team weren't happy about losing the game. A (cdS) compound
subject exists when a sentence has two or more subjects for the same verb joined by a
coordinating conjunction: A boy and a girl were walking toward me. A delayed subject (also
called a displaced subject) is an infinitive or noun-clause subject that has been moved to a
position following the verb and its location filled by the expletive it in order to make the
sentence less formal and more conversational. It is invigorating to roll in the snow. vs. To roll in
the snow is invigorating. It is well known that Jack cheats.vs. That Jack cheats is well known.
subordinate clause: a clause that cannot stand alone as a sentence. Such a clause usually begins
with a clause marker (= subordinating conjunction). It is sometimes called a dependent
clause.
subordinating conjunction: a word introducing a dependent or subordinate clause that indicates
the relationship of the clause to something else in the sentence and indicates that the idea in the
sentence is less important than the idea in the clause or clauses it is attached to. It is sometimes
called a clause marker.
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(subord) subordination: a method of combining ideas through the use of modifiers, phrases,
and dependent clauses so that one or more ideas are made less important than other ideas. As
long as Joe has the money, buying a laptop with a large hard drive seems a good idea. He'll buy
one as soon as he checks out the different brands.
transitive verb: a verb which has a direct object. Bill made the winning goal in yesterday's
soccer game. See direct object and intransitive verb.
(V) verb: a word that usually expresses an action, although it can express a mental state, a
perception, or a condition or can link a subject to a predicate. Susan can run fast. She is speedy,
and she knows how to win. When a sentence has two or more verbs for the same subject or
subjects, it is called a (cdV) compound verb. Susan is the fastest woman on our track team and
is expected to compete in the next Olympics.
verb, linking; a verb that connects a subject with a complement (either a predicate adjective or
a predicate noun). Common linking verbs are appear, be, grow, look, remain, seem, smell, sound,
stay, and taste. Some of these can also be used as transitive verbs, so be sure to note the
sentence patterns in which they are used when identifying their function. Kadia appeared happy
until her son grew tired of sitting still. vs. Lin grew peppers and carrots in her garden. (Grew is a
linking verb in the first sentence, but it is a transitive verb in the second because it has two direct
objects: peppers and carrots.)
verb + preposition: a verb that is customarily followed by the same preposition, or if more than
one preposition can be used, the definition does not change: listen to, look at, depend on or
depend upon.
verb, two-word: a verb followed by one or more prepositions that changes its definition
whenever the preposition or prepositions change:turn on, turn off, turn up, turn down, turn in,
turn into, turn out
verbal: a gerund, participle, or infinitive not used as part of the main verb. A verbal can
function as a noun, adjective, or adverb and can have its own subject, object, and/or complement,
just as a main verb can. Note that the person doing the action indicated by a gerund is a
possessive if the gerund phrase is the subject of the sentence. A prepositional phrase beginning
with for indicates who does the action indicated by an infinitive employed as the subject or
delayed subject of a sentence. Bill's walking downtown caused us to have to wait for him. For
Kevin to have to cook dinner every night was inconvenient. It was annoying for him to have to
wait for his roommate to get home.
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Personal Pronouns
Singular
Plural
Subject Forms:
I
we
you
you
he, she, it
they
Personal Pronouns
The subject forms of pronouns are employed prior to verbs to indicate the actor in a sentence.
I know that you are the one I need to talk to.
Object Forms:
me
us
you
you
him, her, it
them
The object form of a pronoun is used the direct object (DO) of a verb to indicate someone or
something that is acted on by the subject, as an indirect object (IO) to indicate to or for whom an
action was done, or as the object of a preposition (OP).
On her father's birthday Marina gave him a book. He thanked her and said that she could read it
after him. (IO, DO, DO, OP)
Possessive Forms (before a noun):
my
our
your
your
his, her, its
their
Possessive Forms (in place of a noun):
mine
ours
yours
yours
his, hers, its
theirs
There are two types of possessive pronouns: one type is used as the modifier of a noun, while the
other is used as a noun substitute.
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Do you have my book? No, I think Joe has yours.
Reflexive Forms:
myself
ourselves
yourself
yourselves
himself, herself, itself
themselves
Reflexive pronouns are used to refer back to the subject and usually function as objects.
Andy helped himself to some cake and ice cream. The members of the interior design club
always enjoy themselves on their tour of interior decorating studios and warehouses in
Minneapolis.
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Punctuation
The rules for each of the marks of punctuation and for capitalization are divided into two parts.
The rules in the boxes are more basic than the remainder. If you learn the basic rules, you will be
able to punctuate and capitalize correctly in most situations. Refer to the additional rules when
less common problems arise. Note that plagiarism is briefly discussed along with the use of
quotation marks, since failure to use quotation marks can lead to this serious academic crime.
For more detailed information on plagiarism, see "Internet Resources."
Apostrophes | Brackets | Capital Letters | Colons | Commas | Dashes | Ellipses |
Exclamation Point | Hyphens | Italics | Parentheses | Periods | Plagiarism | Question Marks |
Quotation Marks | Semicolons |
A. The Apostrophe (')
1.to indicate omissions in contracted forms
doesn't = does not; I'd = I would or I had
Contractions are frequently used in conversation and informal writing. However, they should be
avoided in academic writing.
2. in the word o'clock(originally of the clock)
3. to indicate possession, origin, or measure
the cat's tail; Bill Jones' or Bill Jones'; coat; the boys' hats; the children's mittens; Alaska's
tundra; New York City's park system; today's newspaper; a week's vacation; a dollar's worth of
change; fifty cents' worth of candy
Exception: Non-living things (except for places, times, and money followed by "worth") and
expressions containing one of normally use a prepositional phrase beginning with of to indicate
possession.
the leg of the chair; the leaves of the tree; the house of one of my friends
4. to mark the omission of one or more digits in a number
the blizzard of '87
5. to form the past participle of certain verbs derived from nouns and the plurals of letters
mentioned as letters, numbers mentioned as numbers, words mentioned as words, and
abbreviations
The boxing champion KO'd the challenger to win the match.
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Because Daisy's T's looked like 7's, her granddaughter put 17 "easpoons" of vanilla into the cake
batter instead of one teaspoon.
To prevent anyone under the age of 21 from buying beer, clerks in stores in the United States are
supposed to check the ID's of young people before allowing them to purchase any.
Exception: The apostrophe may be omitted when the plural of years referring to a decade is
formed: 1880's or 1880s.
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B. Brackets [ ]
1. Brackets are used to put the writer's own insertions into a quotation. They indicate that the
words inside the brackets are not the words of the person being quoted but of the person
reporting them.
Joe told his friends, "My vote for best actor in a television comedy series goes to [Bill] Cosby,
but my wife likes [Harry] Anderson."
2. To indicate that a misspelling or other peculiarity in a quotation occurred in the original and is
not an error of your own, add [sic], a Latin word meaning thus, immediately after the peculiarity.
One student wrote an essay about Bayroot [sic], Lebanon.
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C. The Colon (:)
1. to introduce a list or an example of what has gone before
Jill bought three items when she went to the store: a box of matches, a bag of charcoal, and a big
steak.
2. after the names of speakers in a dialogue
Bob: Mary, when are you going to get yourself an umbrella that doesn't leak?
Mary: As soon as it stops raining. I don't want to get wet.
3. between hours and minutes in time references
9:15
4. after the salutation in a business letter
Dear Sir: To whom it may concern:
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5. to separate the titles and subtitles of books and articles
Speak Freely: Conversational American English
6. before a clause that restates or explains the idea of the preceding clause
The failure of Senator Daschle to gain re-election was not a tragedy: it just seemed that way to
those who had worked for him.
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D. The Comma (,)
1. after yes or no in a response to a question
Yes, he did!
No, I don't know the answer to your question.
2. before the coordinating conjunction between clauses in a compound sentence (See #N1.)
The bluebirds built a nest inside the hollow gourd, and soon the sounds of baby birds could be
heard.
The comma may be omitted between the two clauses when the clauses are very short (usually
under four words each). However, many people still prefer to include the comma even under
these circumstances.
3. to separate items in addresses (See #D14.)
My sister lives at 2135 Union Street, Hartford, Connecticut 69570.
Note that if the above address were placed on an envelope, the street address would go on a
separate line from the city and state. In that case a comma would not be used after Street.
4. to separate items in a series (See #E3.)
Joe went to the store for his mother, mowed the lawn for his father, and fixed his brother's bike.
British English often omits the comma before the and in a series. American English usually
includes it. Since confusion sometimes results if the common is left out, it is safest to use the
comma in this situation.
5. to separate the introductory words from the speaker's words in direct quotations (See #D15.)
John remarked, " I got to speak with Harold Wilson last night!"
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6. to separate large numbers into groups of thousands, millions, and so forth (counting backward
from the right)
10,049; 12,597,321
7. to set off the name of the person spoken to in direct address
"Hello, John. It's good to see you again."
"Have you heard, Mary, whether there are any tickets left for The Sound of Music?"
8. to separate an introductory dependent clause from the main clause
As soon as they placed the pizza order, the boys set their stop watch.
9. after a mild exclamation
"Oh dear, I forgot to bring any salt."
10. before and after an appositive (unless the appositive is at the end of the sentence)
Georgie Jessel, a famous comedian of the thirties, sometimes appeared on television when I was
a child.
11. to separate a tag question from the remainder of the sentence
Joel used to like to ride a unicycle, didn't he?
12. before and after a nonrestrictive adjective clause
Columbus, which is the county seat of Franklin County, is the site of Ohio State University.
13. to set off conjunctive adverbs and other transition expressions from the rest of the sentence
Bill thought he knew the answer; however, he didn't.
We planned for the party to start as soon as the guests of honor arrived. We thought, moreover,
that our plan for getting them there on the dot was foolproof.
Even though the Smiths had to get up early, they stayed at the party until it was over, but they
were glad that they had, nonetheless.
14. to separate elements in dates and place names (See #D3.)
Tom moved to Chicago, Illinois, on August 20, 1987.
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Jean used to live in Chester, England.
15. at the end of the final sentence in a direct quotation when the quotation is followed by a
phrase identifying the speaker if the sentence would ordinarily end with a period (See #D5.)
"I didn't get to hear Harold Wilson speak because I had to study," Bill replied.
However, if some mark of punctuation other than a period ends the quotation, that mark of
punctuation is used, not a comma.
"How sorry were you to miss the speech?" John asked.
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E. The Dash (--)
1. to separate an abrupt break in thought (usually a phrase or a nonrestrictive clause) from the
rest of the sentence. By using the dash the writer indicates that this break in thought should be
noticed. (See #D12, #J1.)
His idea--if we can call it an idea--was so far from what we were talking about that everyone
ignored him.
George--Hallelujah!--is going to arrive within the hour!
2. to separate an explanation of (or an example of) what has just been stated from the remainder
of the sentence when the writer wishes the explanation or example to be noticed (See #C1.)
George brought someone to the picnic that no one had expected to see--his ex-wife's sister.
3. to mark the beginning and end of a series which might otherwise get mixed up with some part
of the remainder of the sentence (usually because of internal commas) (See #D4.)
The partners--Paul, Mike, and David--combined the first parts of each of their names to come up
with Pamida as the name of their new store.
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F. Ellipses ( . . .) ( . . . . )
Ellipses are used to indicate that something has been omitted from a quotation. Three periods
(with spaces between them) are used if the omission occurs at the beginning or in the middle of a
sentence, while four periods are used if the omission is at the end. MLA style requires ellipses to
be placed inside of brackets to indicate that the omission was not made by the original author. If
the ellipses are at the end of the sentence, brackets are placed around only the first three periods.
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"No man is an island [. . .]" is a well-known quotation from the writings of the English poet,
John Donne.
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G. Exclamation Point (!)
Exclamation points follow emphatic statements, interjections, and commands in order to indicate
strong surprise or other strong emotion. Employ them sparingly because their use is the
equivalent of shouting and continual shouting can both distract and annoy readers.
Don't you dare call me a liar! Oops! Be careful! Stop right there!
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H. The Hyphen (-)
1. in certain fixed expressions
person-to-person, station-to-station, sister-in-law
2. in compound numerals
twenty-nine, one hundred and fifty-five, eighty-one hundred dollars and ninety-nine cents
3. between syllables when dividing a word at the end of the line
Joe and Kari had been working for quite a few hours when they discovered that they were digging in the wrong spot.
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I. Italics
Italics is a special kind of type that cannot be imitated by most typewriters or in hand-written
material. Underlining is substituted for it. If, however, a computer is used, either italics or
underlining can be employed in most circumstances. The most common use of italics is to
indicate the exact title of books, magazines, newspapers, CDs, feature-length movies, and other
long literary works. Short literary works employ quotation marks. (See #M4.)
The Sound of Music or The Sound of Music
the Brookings Register or the Brookings Register
From Reading to Writing or From Reading to Writing
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J. Parentheses ( )
1. Parentheses are used in situations similar to those in which dashes are used (See #E1.), but
with the effect of de-emphasizing the words included between them. In other words, putting
something in parentheses is the equivalent to giving the reader permission to skip the material if
he is in a hurry.
George Jones (who lived from 1803-1897) was one of the founders of the city of Jonesville.
2. to set off incidental information such as numbers and dates
I wish to order twenty-two (22) red pens.
World War II (1942-1945) was a period of hardship and death for many people.
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K. The Period (.)
1. at the end of a statement
Khrushchev pounded on the table with his shoe during his famous "kitchen debate" with Richard
Nixon in the 1950s.
2. after most abbreviations
Dr.; Ms.; S.D.; U.S.A.
The U.S. Postal Service does not employ periods in its list of recommended abbreviations for
states of the United States to be used in addresses. However, periods are normally used in such
abbreviations elsewhere.
3. in the expressions a.m. and p.m.
4. in decimal numbers to separate whole numbers from fractions and to divide dollar from cents
in prices
3.14076; $4.35
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L. The Question Mark (?)
Question marks are placed at the end of a direct question, no matter what the sentence pattern
employed.
Who is coming to your party tomorrow night?
Is Sam coming?
Bill can't come, can he?
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M. Quotation Marks (" ") (` ')
In general, periods and commas always go inside quotation marks, but other punctuation marks
go inside or outside depending on whether they belong to the quotation alone or to the entire
sentence.
Bill inquired, "Don't you know the way to Bob's house?"
How do you pronounce "San Jose"?
1. to enclose the exact words of a speaker or writer when the words are reported by someone
else, no matter whether the words are reported as those of a speaker in a conversation or are
incorporated into a sentence of the person doing the reporting
Mary asked her brother, "Are you going to the concert tonight?"
"Gaul is divided into three parts" is a famous statement by Julius Caesar.
PLEASE NOTE: Failure to employ quotation marks to acknowledge that words are not original
with the reporter can sometimes lead to the charge of plagiarism, the "theft" of someone else's
words or ideas. Plagiarism is considered a serious offense in the academic world and can lead to
severe penalties, including dismissal from school. There are legitimate ways to paraphrase ideas
that you have gotten from your reading, but even then the source of the idea must be indicated.
Check a handbook specific to your field for preferred methods of paraphrasing, summarizing,
and identifying ideas from sources. The page "Internet Resources" provides a link to a site
defining plagiarism in more detail as well as to ones detailing common styles for citing sources.
2. around foreign words used in English sentences
This song will be sung "a capella" the first time through. The orchestra will be used to
accompany the singers on the second verse.
Some writers, however, use italics or underlining in this situation.
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3. around words used as words (and not for any meaning they might have)
Sam has mispronounced the word "chimney" all his life.
Do you know what "expedient" means?
4. around the title of a magazine article, a short story, a chapter in a book, or some other short
literary work such as a poem or a movie short (See #I1.)
"The Pit and the Pendulum" is one of Edgar Allen Poe's scariest stories.
5. In American English single quotation marks (‘ ') are used for quotations within quotations.
Mary said, "My favorite literary quotation is `To be or not to be . . . . ' from Hamlet by William
Shakespeare."
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N. The Semicolon (:)
1. between the clauses in a compound sentence when no coordinating conjunction is used, even
if a conjunctive adverb or a transitional expression is used (See #D2.)
The two trumpeters began to play; then the trombonist joined in.
John felt he could listen to them play all night; however, his friends insisted that they all go to a
restaurant for a late-night snack.
2. between items in a series when the items contain commas
I have lived in Columbus, Ohio; Kansas City, Missouri; and Brookings, South Dakota, within the
last twenty-five years.
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O. Capital Letters
1. the first word of every sentence
This is an easy rule to follow if you remember that most capital letters in English are twice as tall
as the lower-case ones.
2. titles used with the name of a person
I want to see Dr. Anderson, not just any doctor.
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3. proper names: i.e. the names of persons, places, things, courses, and so forth
Wilbur Jones; the Empire State Building; San Francisco; Engineering 301 (but not, for instance,
engineering, mathematics, or history, in general usage)
4. adjectives coming from the names of countries, continents, or cities
Japanese; Egyptian; European; New Yorker; Washingtonian
5. the days of the week
Sunday; Monday; Tuesday
6. holidays
Thanksgiving; Independence Day
7. the months of the year
September; October; November
8. streets, cities, states, countries, continents
Elm Avenue; London; Florida; England; Australia
9. the first quoted word of a speaker
John responded, "Do I know you?"
10. the first word and all important words in a title
Ports of Entry: Scientific Concerns, A Practical Guide for Advanced Writing in English as a
Second Language
11. points of the compass when they are used to designate geographical areas
Betty Sue grew up in the South.
However, if the points of the compass are merely used to indicate direction, they are not
capitalized.
The salesman drove west on Route 14.
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Expletives, To be Verbs, and the Passive
None of the structures discussed in this section are "wrong" English. However, they should be
avoided because they frequently cause wordiness, unclear references, and/or a lack of
concreteness. Rephrasing sentences containing expletives, to be verbs, and the passive usually
leads to a clearer, more concise, and more vigorous and persuasive style. Locating the forms of
to be in a paper will also locate both expletives and passives. The easiest way to do so is to go to
the search feature on your computer and type in is, are, was, were, been, and so on one by one.
Automatically replace each of these words with that form followed by an asterisk, for instance,
is*. Then look over all the sentences containing the to be verbs and decide which ones to restate.
Expletives
The expletives there and it are place-holders. They have no meaning in and of themselves, but
they take or "hold" the subject position when the subject is moved from its normal location
before the verb to a position following the verb. Sometimes such a shift is useful, but much of
the time it merely buries something important within the sentence and makes it less noticeable.
Note how much more interesting the sentence without the expletive there is in each of the
following pairs. Not only is the actor more apparent, but the action verb has greater visibility.
There is a group of protestors demonstrating in front of the student union.
--A group of protestors is demonstrating in front of the student union.
There were men in the corner watching the Vikings game intently.
--Men in the corner were watching the Vikings game intently.
Sentences containing the expletive it also relocate the subject of the sentence, but the reason for
doing so is a bit different from the reason for employing the expletive there. The use of this
delayed subject pattern (often called the displaced subject pattern) changes a formal sentence
pattern with an infinitive or noun-clause subject into a conversational one. For this reason, many
people consider this sentence pattern acceptable, at least in less formal circumstances.
To decide whether to eat at home or go outis easy
--It is easy to decide whether to eat at home or go out.
Whether or not we are going to go to the movies tonight has not been decided.
--It has not been decided whether or not we are going to go to the movies tonight.
That Joe cannot finish the paper before the deadline is certain.
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--It is certain that Joe cannot finish the paper before the deadline.
To be Verbs
To be verbs are all the various forms of that verb: am, is, are, was, were, has or have been, had
been, will have been, being, and to be. They are used to link a subject with a noun or adjective
complement, to precede the ing-form of an action verb to form continuous tenses, and to precede
the past participle of a transitive verb to form the passive. All of the following examples are
correct, but many of them are boring. Changing them to the actor-action sentence pattern
normally makes the sentences more interesting and concise.
1. Linking Verbs:
Laura is a photographer for the local newspaper.
Better: Laura works as a photographer for the local newspaper.
Better: Laura shoots photographs for the local newspaper.
George hasn't been well for a long time.
Better: George's illness has lasted for a long time.
That scandal is interesting to a lot of people.
Better: That scandal interests a lot of people.
2. Continuous Tenses:
A continuous tense verb can often be changed to the simple tense, but doing so isn't always best,
since continuous tenses stress the on-going nature of the activity more strongly than simple
tenses.(The simple tenses of action verbs usually indicate custom, habit, and repetition.)
Josef had been working at Morrell's for three years when he quit to attend SDSU. -> Josef had
worked at Morrell's for three years before he quit to attend SDSU.
The Passive
The major reason why writers employ the passive is that it either omits or de-emphasizes who
performs an action. Thus, the passive is commonly accepted in the sciences, since the person
who performed the experiment or did the observation is much less important than what he or she
discovered. Others often employ it when the actor is unknown or when it is advisable not to tell
"who done it." (Who wants a black eye or a lawsuit?) Finally, narrative writers also use the
passive to keep the focus on a limited number of central characters instead of bouncing back and
forth among a large number of mostly unimportant persons.
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However, the major reason for using the passive is also one major reason to avoid it. Many feel
that it is dishonest not to take responsibility for one's actions, and, thus, they would highly object
to someone saying, "Mistakes were made when the $500 coffee pot was purchased." They would
prefer, "I made a mistake." or "The army supply office goofed." Even though others may not
think of the passive as primarily a means of hiding who did an action, they may still not like its
use because it is boring. Seeing an actor acting is more exciting than just hearing that the action
was done or that the subject was acted upon.
Since a passive sentence is a reversal of an active sentence, what would normally function as a
direct object (DO = the person or thing acted upon) or the indirect object (IO = the person or
thing the action was done to or for) becomes the subject of the passive sentence, and what would
normally be the actor is either removed entirely or pushed into a prepositional phrase beginning
with by located at the end of the sentence. The active verb is transformed into a passive verb by
changing the main verb into a past participle and adding the auxiliary verb be prior to it in the
same tense as the original active verb.
Active: The cowboy rode the wildest of the bucking broncos to a standstill.
Passive: The wildest of the bucking broncos was ridden to a standstill by the cowboy. (Original
DO as the passive subject)
Active: The workmen are replacing the telephone cables.
Passive: The telephone cables are being replaced. (Original DO as the passive subject)
Active: The UPS driver will give the package to whoever opens the door.
Active: The UPS driver will give whoever opens the door the package.
Passive: Whoever opens the door will be given the package. (Original IO as the passive subject)
Passive: The package will be given to whoever opens the door. (Original DO as the passive
subject; note that when an indirect object remains after the passive verb, the preposition to or for,
whichever is appropriate, is usually added before the indirect object even if it was omitted in the
original sentence.)
Thus, the most common and easiest way to "correct" a passive sentence is to flip the sentence so
that the actor is performing the action on someone or something.Sometimes an actor must be
added to the active sentence if the passive sentence omits it.
Passive: The ball was hit.
Active: Bill hit the ball. (Note the addition of the previously unmentioned actor Bill.)
Passive: The box of treasure had been buried by the pirates before they escaped from the royal
navy.
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Active: The pirates had buried the box of treasure before they escaped from the royal navy.
Passive: A tennis match is being played by the top two players in the state.
Active: The top two players in the state are playing a tennis match.
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Verb Tenses
The chart below summarizes the most common uses of the six verb tenses in English. The simple
tenses all indicate one-time actions, repetition, and sometimes continuing activity, while the
continuous tenses all emphasize on-going action at the time indicated. Nonaction verbs--verbs
indicating mental activity, emotions, state, and sometimes sense perception--do not use the
continuous tenses. Pay special attention to the ways in which times are employed with the
various tenses, since time expressions are commonly used to signal shifts in tenses.
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