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TIME Time began with creation. With God there is no time. He is eternal. God made time for man. And the evening and the morning were the first (second, third, etc.) day. Time is determined by the sun and the moon. In early days it was measured by sundials. Today it is measured by clocks of many different kinds. Time is measured by seconds, minutes, hours, days, weeks, months, years, and centuries. Clocks and watches are used to measure minutes and hours. Calendars are used to measure days, months and years. Day and night A day (evening and morning) is 24 hours. Morning is from 12:00 a.m. to 11:59 a.m. (or noon) Afternoon, evening and night are from 12:00 p.m. (noon) to 11:59 p.m. (midnight). A day is from sunrise to sunset. A night is from sunset to sunrise. In most areas of America they use daylight savings time in the late spring and summer months and move the clocks ahead one hour. The days of the week are: Sunday, Monday, Tuesday, Wednesday, Thursday, Friday, and Saturday. The months of the year are: January, February, March, April, May, June, July, August, September, October, November, and December. 16 A REFERENCE GUIDE for learning English English words include: NOUNS, Pronouns VERBS Adjectives Adverbs Prepositions, Conjunctions, Interjections, Articles Nouns represent people, places and things. Pronouns take the place of nouns. Proper nouns give specific names : Mary Brown, France Common nouns are general terms : man, box, tree, country Collective nouns name groups: crew, staff, team Nouns can be: persons: mother, soldier, Joe, African; children animals: dog, lion, pig; places: home, town, forest, sea, continent objects: chair, door, computer; substances: air, water, clay, food; qualities: kindness, heroism, beauty, faith; actions: reading, sleeping, listening; measures: inch, month, day, meter, pound Nouns and pronouns can be singular or plural: ball, balls, man, men; he, they; I, we; house, houses; child, children Verbs can become nouns by adding –ing: singing, reading Adjectives tell something about nouns and pronouns. pretty dress; hard word; cold day Verbs express action, condition, or a state of being. Linking (helping) verbs assist other verbs: has come, did write Adverbs tell something about the verb: run quickly; speak clearly. They also modify adjectives or another adverb: very dark; quite slowly Prepositions show relationships between words in a sentence. The man in the car. The book with the yellow cover. Conjunctions connect words and phrases: you and me. Interjections stand alone. Wow! Great! Putting words together (syntax, grammar) A sentence is the basic unit of thought in the English language. Every sentence has a subject (noun, pronoun, or noun phrase) and a predicate (verb or verb phrase) which expresses the action or state of being. 2 Inverted sentences are sentences that are not in normal order (subjectverb). They are turned around. Inverted sentences may begin with a phrase or clause, or the subject may follow the verb. How we measure We measure things by size, weight, and volume. We use rulers to calculate size by inches, feet, yards and miles (also by milimeters, centimeters, meters, and kilometers.) We use scales to measure weight in ounces, pounds, and tons. We measure volume by spoons, cups, pints, quarts, gallons and different sizes of containers. Electricity is measured by watts and voltage. We measure quality by tests and standards. failing, poor, fair, average, above average, superior, excellent God measures us by the standard of His Word. We also measure by comparisons: positive comparative superlative good better best tall taller than the tallest hot hotter the hottest big bigger the biggest neat neater the neatest sharp sharper the sharpest dark darker the darkest keen keener the keenest smart smarter the smartest long longer the longest short shorter the shortest Adjectives of two or more syllables are usually compared by prefixing the words more and most, or less and least.. famous more famous than the most famous beautiful more beautiful than the most beautiful costly less costly than the least costly difficult less difficult than the least difficult 15 Articles: a, an (indefinite); the (definite) Adjectives usually come before the noun or pronoun. The subject does the action of the verb (stated or implied). The predicate acts out the subject. Descriptive adjectives tell more about the person, place or thing: what kind, color, size, shape, etc. Limiting adjectives tell how many, how much, which one, where, etc. Predicate adjectives come after the linking verbs: is, become, seem, grow, turn, prove, look, feel, sound, smell, taste, appear, remain, keep, and stay. The sound was loud. She feels sick. Proper adjectives use proper names (French, American, and African) I am an American. Phrases are groups of words without a subject and a verb. Nouns and possessive nouns can be used as adjectives. Adverbs Adverbs modify verbs (adjectives and adverbs) They tell when, where, how, in what manner or to what extent or degree. They are words of time, place, manner or degree. now, then, sometimes, always, never, recently, here, there, everywhere, anywhere, far, deep, quickly, slowly, gracefully, peacefully, happily, diligently Kinds of sentences: A declarative sentence makes a statement. A declarative sentence may be written in normal order (subject-verb), or the subject may appear in other places for emphasis, variety, or clearness. We are learning English. Prepositional phrases are groups of words that begin with a preposition and end with a noun (object) of the preposition. They act as adjectives or adverbs, occasionally as nouns in the car; with the children; beside the tall mango tree Verbal phrases are groups of words that act as a noun, adjective, or adverb. They look like a verb but do not act like a verb. Three kinds of verbals are: Gerunds which always end in –ing and act as a noun (Reading is difficult). Infinitives which are verb forms that begin with to. Infinitives can act as nouns, adjectives, or adverbs. (To learn is rewarding. I must study to learn.) Participles are the –---ing and -ed form of the verb without its helper (have). Participle Phrases act as adjectives, usually describing the subject. He pastors a growing church. I ate a dried peanut. Clauses are groups of words that have a subject and a verb. Clauses can act as nouns, adjectives, or adverbs. Independent Clauses can stand alone as a sentence. Dependent Clauses (subordinate clauses) can not stand alone. They need an independent clause to complete their meaning. Fragments are incomplete groups of words without meaning. Vowel sounds a, e, i, o, u, y Aa (open mouth low in throat) (partly closed high in throat) (through roof of mouth) An interrogative sentence asks a question and is usually in inverted order. What are you doing? Who was that? all ate An imperative sentence gives a command or makes a request. Its subject is seldom expressed. The subject is understood. Go back home. Get up. Be quiet please. ball call at ask bat cat An exclamatory sentence expresses strong feeling or sudden emotion and is seldom in normal order. Woe unto us! What a sad event. fall, far, father fat famine bait, base, bail, basic date fate 3 14 gall hall jar gnat gate, gave, gait hat hate, hale, hail jack jade, jail kangaroo lard land late mall mat mate, male, mail pat plate, pale, pail plan rah rat rate, radio, raise, rake ram rabbi race. raid, rail, rain rabbit rack, rag small sat state. [said] tall that tail, take vault vat, vacum vale, vail, vain vaunt vaccination vacant, vacation value, valve vapor, vary vascular, vaste water waste, waist, wait, want zap Oo (rounded lips from throat) (lips open top of throat) (lips together top of throat) bow, boat, bone cold door fold, float go ho, hold joe, join lo, load motor no porridge quote box, cot dot for, forth got hot jot lot, long mop not pot boo, boot, booth coo do food, fool good hood loon mood, moon noon poor 4 Commonly used prepositions: above at by about before down across behind during after below except against beneath for along beside from among between in around beyond inside into like near of off on since to toward through under until up upon with within Conjunctions join words or groups of words. And, but, or – connect words or groups of words of equal rank. Interjections stand alone and express strong feeling or emotion. Hey! Stop! Alas. Amazing! Awesome. Commonly used auxiliary verbs am have do is has did are had does was have been may were had been can will be has been might shall be shall could could be will would should must should have would have must have should have been could have been must have been Adjectives Adjectives modify nouns and pronouns. tall, long/short; deep/shallow; wide/narrow; good/bad; rainy/sunny; wet/dry; beautiful/ugly; rapid, fast, quick/slow; accurate/inaccurate; worthy/unworthy; old/new; essential/non-essential; necessary/unnecessary; intelligent/stupid; difficult/easy; juicy/dry; steep/flat numbers: one, two three, four, five, six, seven, eight, nine, ten, eleven, twelve, thirteen, fourteen, fifteen, sixteen, seventeen, eighteen, nineteen, twenty, thirty, forty, fifty, sixty, seventy, eighty, ninety, one hunded. First, second, third, fourth, fifth, sixth, seventh .... 13 spring steal swear swim take teach tear tell think throw try understand wake wear weave weep wind wring write sprang, sprung stole swore swam took taught tore told thought threw tried understood waked, woke wore wove wept wound wrung wrote sprung stolen sworn swung taken taught torn told thought thrown tried understood waked worn woven wept wound wrung written Prepositions and conjunctions Prepositions show relationships between words in a sentence. Prepositions always have a noun as an object. The preposition and its object are called a prepositional phrase. Subordinating conjunctions: after, although, as, because, before, if, once, since, than, that, though, unless, until, when, whenever, where, wherever, while Phrases that function as suborinating conjunctions: as if; as though, as long as; as soon as; even though; in order that; so that 12 rote so toe. throat rot sought tot tooth root soon, shoot too, to, two, toot, tool, vote woe who, wood, would lips slightly open won one honey Ii low in throat upper throat through mouth bite die fire, fine, fight, fright, flight hi, high kite lie, line, lime, light, mine, might pie, pine quite right, rice sight, sigh tie, time, tight vine white bit, bid, bill did fit, fish, fill bird Uu but, bunny, bun cut dumb fun, funny gun hit, hill kit, kid, knit, kill lit, lid, til mitt, mill pit, pill quit ring sit, sin, simple, sink, sil tin, tit, vintage wit, win, wish, will Yy by cry dry fry, fry cute dune flute, fume, 5 buy hut, hunt nut pun rut sun, sunny tunnel v, w, x, y, z lute lye my nye pry rye sty, spy, sky try, tye puny tune ou you, youth Ee low in throat be, bee, beet, beat create, cheer, cheat, cheap deed, deer fee, feet, feat, fear, female, feed, free, flea greet, greed he, heat, heed key, knee leak, leek, me, meet, meat neat pea, peanut, plea reed, read see, seek, sea, seat, seed, sheet tea, tee, tree, three we, week, weak bed, bell cell, cent, century dell, fell, fed gel hell knel led, lent met, meant, net pet red set, shell tell, temple wet ye, year yet, yell, vegetable 6 drink drive drown eat fall flow fly forget freeze get give go hang (a picture) hang (a criminal) know lay (to place, to put0 lead leave let lie (to recline) lie (tell a falsehood) lose prove ride ring rise run say see send set shake shine (give light) shine (polish) show shrink sing sink sit drank drove drowned ate fell flowed flew forgot froze got gave went hung hanged knew laid led left let lay (not laid) lied lost proved rode rang rose ran said saw sent set shook shone shined showed shrank sang sank sat drunk driven drowned eaten fallen flowed flown forgotten, forgot frozen got, gotten given gone hung hanged known laid led left let lain (not laid) lied lost proved ridden rung risen (not rose) run said seen sent set shaken shone shined shown, showed shrunk sung sunk sat 11 buy-bought; catch-caught; fight-fought; teach-taught; think-thought; feed-fed; flee-fled; find-found; grind-ground (three forms) begin-began-begun; ring-rang-rung; sing-sang-sung; spring-sprang-sprung; do-did-done; go-went-gone; am-was-been; is-was-been; drink-drank-drunk; shrink-shrank-shrunk; sink-sank-sunk; stink-stank-stunk; blow-blew-blown; draw, drew, drawn; grow, grew, grown; know, knew, known; throw, threw, thron; fly, flew, flown; drive, drove, driven; strive, strove, striven. (more than three parts) choose, chose, chosen; rise, rose, risen; break, broke, broken; speak, spoke, spoken; fall, fell, fallen; shake, shook, shaken; take, took, taken; forget, forgot, forgotten; get, got, gotten; give, gave, given; forgive, forgave, forgiven; forsake, forsook, forsaken; hide, hid, hidden; ride, rode, ridden; write, wrote, written; come, came, come; overcome, overcame, overcome; run, ran, run; freeze, froze, frozen; steal, stole, stolen. present tense (present time) awake be (am) beat become begin bid (offer to buy) bid (command) blow break bring broadcast burst catch choose climb come cut dive do drag draw past tense (past time) awake, awoke was, were beat became began bid bade blew broke brought broadcast, broadcasted burst caught chose climbed came cut dived did dragged drew 10 past participle (used with have, has, had) awaked, awoke been beaten become begun bid bidden, bid blown broken brought broadcast, broadcasted burst caught chosen climbed come cut dived done dragged drawn VERBS Verbs are identified by their infinitive form: to be, to make, to read, to hear, to have Verb tenses are forms of a verb that indicate when the action occurs or occurred. The subjunctive mood is the form of a verb used to indicate a condition contrary to fact. The principal verb forms or tenses are: Present: present progressive, perfect, perfect progressive Past: past progressive, perfect, perfect progressive Future: future progressive, perfect, perfect progressive The present tense expresses what happens now or routinely. The present progressive shows a continuing action that is happening now. It uses -ing with the auxiliary or helping verb to be. Example: I am eating. He is reading. You are playing. We are studying. They are sleeping. The present perfect shows an action completed in the past. It uses the helping verb to have and the past form of the verb. Example: I have eaten. He has read. You have played. We have studied. They have slept. The present perfect progressive shows action that began in the past and is continuing in the present. It uses the helping verb to have and the past participle of to be with the –ing form of the verb. Example: I have been eating. He has been reading. You have been playing. We have been studying. They have been sleeping. The past tense expresses an action that happened in the past and uses the past form of the verb. I ate. He read. We studied. They slept. The past progressive tense indicates a continuing action in the past. It uses the past tense of the helping verb to be and the progressive form of the verb. Example: I was eating. He was reading. You were playing. We were studying. They were sleeping. The past perfect shows action completed in the past or completed before some other past action. It uses the past tense of the helping verb to have with the past participle form of the verb. I had eaten. He had read. You had played. They had slept. 7 The past perfect progressive tense shows continuing action that began in the past. It uses the past tense of the helping verbs to have and to be with the progressive form of the verb. Example: I had been eating. He had been reading. You had been playing. They had been sleeping. The future tense shows action that has yet to happen. It is formed with the helping. verb to will: I will (shall) read. We will (shall) sleep. You will study. You will come. He (she, it) will eat. They will stop. The future progressive tense shows continuing action in the future. It uses the helping verbs to will and to be with the progressive –ing form of the verb. I will be eating. We will be sleeping. You will be studying. You will be coming. He will be reading. They will be stopping. The future perfect shows actions that will be completed at a certain time in the future. It uses the helping verbs to will and to have with the past participle form of the verb. I will have read. We will have slept. You will have studied You will have come. He, she, it will have eaten They will have stopped. The future perfect progressive shows continuing actions that will be completed at a certain time in the future. It uses the helping verb to will, the past tense of the helping verb to have, the verb to be and the progressive –ing form of the verb. I will have been eating. We will have been sleeping. You will have been studying. You will have been coming. He will have been reading. They will have been stopping. The subjunctive mood is used to express conditions. It is formed by using the infinitive (without –to) and the verb to be. present: If I am ..., If you are ... past: If I was rich I would ...; If you were rich you would ..., etc. If I were rich I would ..... If it works out I will ....; present perfect: If I have been ....; If you have been, If he has been... Verbs can be active or passive. With active verbs the subject does the action. The students washed the dishes. With passive verbs the subject receives the action. The dishes were washed by the students 8 Verbs can be regular or irregular. Regular verbs follow these rules: Rule 1: Use the infinive except after he, she, it where s is added I make, you make, he (she, it) makes, we make, you make, they make Rule 2: For verbs ending ending in y, the, y is often changed to -ie before adding –s in the first person singular. examples: I study- he studies, we try- she tries; you cry-he cries; they fly- it flies, but not always, example: I buy; he buys There are many irregular verbs in English. See the chart to help you. Verb: to be (irregular) Verb: to do (irregular) I am we are I do we do you are you are you do you do he, she, it is they are he, she, it does they do rule: When a verb ends with a vowel and a consonant the last consonant is doubled before adding ing or ed. ex: net, netting, netted rule: Regular verbs ending with a consonant and y add ing for the progressive form, but the y is changed to i before adding the –ed for the past tenses. cry, crying, cried; try trying, tried Some verbs have only one form and change only when ing is added to form the present participle: bet, bid, burst, cost, cut, hit, hurt, put, quit, read, set, shut, spread, upset. Example: Today I bid on the car. Yesterday I bid on the car. Today it costs a lot. Yesterday it cost less. Today I hit the ball. Yesterday I hit the ball. The ed is not always heard, so is often eliminated: asked, risked, supposed, used irregular verbs bite, bit, bit; dig, dug, dug; bleed, bled, bled; hear, heard, heard; hold, held; light lit; meet, met; pay, paid; say-said; sell, sold; tell, told; shine, shone; shoot, shot; sit, sat; spin, spun; spit, spat; win, won; swear, swore; tear, tore; wear, wore. (two identical parts) creep-crept; deal-dealt; keep-kept; kneel-knelt; leave-left; mean-meant; send-sent; sleep-slept; spend-spent; sweep-swept; bring-brought; 9