Download Classical Conditioning, cont

Psychology
CHAPTER
7
Learning and
Conditioning
© 2014, 2011, 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.
Classical Conditioning
• Classical conditioning
– Learning
• A relatively permanent change in behavior due to
experience.
– Behaviorism
• An approach to psychology that emphasizes the study of
observable behavior and the role of the environment and
prior experience as determinants of behavior.
– Conditioning
• A basic kind of learning that involves associations
among environmental stimuli and an organism’s
behavior.
© 2014, 2011, 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.
Classical Conditioning, cont’
• Classical conditioning
– The process by which
a previously neutral
stimulus acquires the
capacity to elicit a
response through
association with a
stimulus that already
elicits a similar
response.
© 2014, 2011, 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.
Classical Conditioning, cont’
LO7.1 List and explain each of the four key elements that make classical conditioning
take place.
• New reflexes from old
– Unconditioned
stimulus (US): Elicits a
certain response without
additional learning.
– Unconditioned
response (UR):
Response elicited by an
unconditioned stimulus.
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Classical Conditioning, cont’
LO7.1 List and explain each of the four key elements that make classical conditioning
take place.
• New reflexes
from old
– A neutral
stimulus is
then regularly
paired with an
unconditioned
stimulus.
© 2014, 2011, 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.
Classical Conditioning, cont’
LO7.1 List and explain each of the four key elements that make classical conditioning
take place.
• New reflexes from old
– Conditioned stimulus (CS): An
initially neutral stimulus that
comes to elicit a conditioned
response after being paired with
an unconditioned stimulus.
– Conditioned response (CR): A
response that is elicited by a
conditioned stimulus. Occurs
after the CS has been associated
with an US. Is usually similar to
the US
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Classical Conditioning, cont’
LO7.2 Discuss the basic principles of classical conditioning.
• Principles of classical conditioning
– Extinction
– Higher-order conditioning
– Stimulus generalization and
discrimination
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Classical Conditioning, cont’
LO7.2 Discuss the basic principles of classical conditioning.
• Extinction
– The weakening and eventual disappearance of a
learned response.
– In classical
conditioning, it
occurs when the
conditioned
stimulus is no
longer paired with
the unconditioned
stimulus.
© 2014, 2011, 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.
Classical Conditioning, cont’
LO7.2 Discuss the basic principles of classical conditioning.
• Higher-ordering conditioning
– A neutral stimulus becomes a conditioned
stimulus through association with an already
established conditioned stimulus.
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Classical Conditioning, cont’
LO7.2 Discuss the basic principles of classical conditioning.
• Stimulus generalization
– In classical conditioning, occurs when a
new stimulus that resembles the
conditioned stimulus elicits the
conditioned response.
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Classical Conditioning, cont’
LO7.2 Discuss the basic principles of classical conditioning.
• Stimulus discrimination
– The tendency to respond differently to
two or more similar stimuli
– In classical conditioning, occurs when a
stimulus similar to the conditioned
stimulus fails to evoke a conditioned
response
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Classical Conditioning, cont’
LO7.3 Explain why the stimulus to be conditioned should precede the unconditioning
stimulus in order for classical conditioning to take place.
• What is actually learned in classical
conditioning?
– For classical conditioning to be most effective,
the stimulus to be conditioned should precede
the unconditioned stimulus.
– We learn that the first stimulus predicts the
second.
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Classical Conditioning in Real Life
LO7.4 Provide examples of how classical conditioning takes place in forming preferences
and avoiding fearful stimuli.
• Learning to like
– Where do sentimental feelings come from?
– Objects have been associated in the past with
positive feelings.
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Classical Conditioning in Real Life, cont’
LO7.4 Provide examples of how classical conditioning takes place in forming preferences
and avoiding fearful stimuli.
• Learning to fear
– Research suggests we can learn fear through association.
– Watson and Rayner conditioned “Little Albert” to be afraid of
white rats by pairing the neutral stimulus (rats) with an
unconditioned stimulus (loud noise).
– Within days, Albert was afraid of rats, and his fear generalized to
other furry objects.
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Classical Conditioning in Real Life, cont’
LO7.4 Provide examples of how classical conditioning takes place in forming preferences
and avoiding fearful stimuli.
• Accounting for taste
– Slugs learned an aversion to the smell of
carrots, which they normally like, after the
smell of carrots was paired with a bittertasting chemical.
– Psychologist Martin Seligman developed an
aversion to béarnaise sauce after he came
down with the flu following a meal of filet
mignon with béarnaise sauce.
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Classical Conditioning in Real Life, cont’
LO7.5 Describe how the process of counterconditioning takes place.
• Reacting to medical
treatments
– Some cancer patients react
to waiting rooms with
nausea, because the waiting
room has been associated
with chemotherapy, which
chemically causes nausea.
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Classical Conditioning in Real Life, cont’
LO7.5 Describe how the process of counterconditioning takes place.
• Why do placebos work?
– Cognitive psychologists emphasize the
role of expectations.
– Expectations of getting better may
reduce anxiety, and that reduction may
have a positive effect on the immune
system.
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Operation Conditioning
LO7.6 Discuss how Thorndike’s law of effect served as the basis for operant conditioning.
• The birth of radical behaviorism
– To understand behavior it is necessary
to focus on the external causes of an
action and the action’s consequences.
– To explain behavior, one must look
outside the individual, not inside.
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Operation Conditioning, cont’
LO7.7 Define operant conditioning and explain the difference between operant
conditioning and classical conditioning.
• Operant conditioning
– The process by which a response
becomes more likely to occur or less so,
depending on its consequences.
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Operation Conditioning, cont’
LO7.8 Distinguish between reinforcement and punishment and a positive and negative
stimulus. Provide examples of positive and negative reinforcement and punishment.
• Consequences of behavior
– Reinforcement: process by
which a stimulus or even
strengthens or increases the
probability of the response
that it follows.
– Punishment: process by
which a stimulus or event
weakens or reduces the
probability of the response
that it follows.
© 2014, 2011, 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.
Operation Conditioning, cont’
LO7.8 Distinguish between reinforcement and punishment and a positive and negative
stimulus. Provide examples of positive and negative reinforcement and punishment.
• Types of reinforcement
– Reinforcement: process by
which a stimulus or event
strengthens or increases the
probability of the response
that it follows.
– Punishment: process by
which a stimulus or event
weakens or reduces the
probability of the response
that it follows.
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Operation Conditioning, cont’
LO7.9 Distinguish between primary and secondary reinforcers and punishers.
• Reinforcers
– Primary reinforcers are inherently
reinforcing and typically satisfying a
physiological need.
– Secondary reinforcers are stimuli that
have acquired reinforcing properties
through association with other
reinforcers.
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Operation Conditioning, cont’
LO7.9 Distinguish between primary and secondary reinforcers and punishers.
• Punishers
– Primary punishers are stimuli that are
inherently punishing.
– Secondary punishers are stimuli that
have acquired punishing properties
through association with other
punishers.
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Operation Conditioning, cont’
LO7.9 Distinguish between primary and secondary reinforcers and punishers.
• Types of punishment
– Positive punishment: When
an unpleasant consequence
follows a response, making
the response less likely to
recur.
– Negative punishment:
When a pleasant
consequence is removed
following a response, making
the response less likely to
recur.
© 2014, 2011, 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.
Principles of Operant Conditioning
LO7.10 Discuss the basic principles of operant conditioning.
• The Skinner Box
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Principles of Operant Conditioning, cont’
LO7.10 Discuss the basic principles of operant conditioning.
• Extinction
– The weakening and eventual disappearance of a learned
response; in operant conditioning, it occurs when a response is
no longer followed by a reinforcer.
• Stimulus generalization
– In operant conditioning, the tendency for a response that has
been reinforced (or punished) in the presence of one stimulus to
occur (or be suppressed) in the presence of other similar stimuli.
• Stimulus discrimination
– In operant conditioning, the tendency of a response to occur in
the presence of one stimulus but not in the presence of other
similar stimuli that differ from it on some dimension.
© 2014, 2011, 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.
Principles of Operant Conditioning, cont’
LO7.11 Compare how learning takes place under continuous versus intermittent
reinforcement.
• Schedules of reinforcement
– Continuous
• Particular response is always reinforced.
– Intermittent
• Particular response is sometimes but not always
reinforced.
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Principles of Operant Conditioning, cont’
LO7.12 Explain the process of shaping and how reinforcement of success approximations
can be used to alter behavior.
• Shaping
– An operant-conditioning procedure in which
successive approximations of a desired
response are reinforced.
– Instinctive drift: the tendency for an
organism to revert to instinctive behavior.
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Principles of Operant Conditioning, cont’
LO7.13 Describe how biology and genetics place limits on an organism’s ability to learn
through operant conditioning.
• Biological limits on learning
– Instinctive drift
• During operant learning, the tendency for an
organism to revert to instinctive behavior.
• In humans, operant learning is affected by
genetics, biology, and the evolutionary history of
our species.
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Principles of Operant Conditioning, cont’
LO7.13 Describe how biology and genetics place limits on an organism’s ability to learn
through operant conditioning.
• Skinner
– Maintained that private internal events –
perceptions, emotions, and thoughts – are as
real as any others, and we can study them by
studying our own sensory experiences.
– Insisted, however, that thoughts and feelings
cannot explain behavior.
– These components of consciousness are
themselves simply behaviors that occur
because of reinforcement and punishment.
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Operant Conditioning in Real Life
LO7.14 List and discuss six reasons why punishment often fails to effectively change
behavior.
• Operant conditioning in real life
– Behavior modification
• The application of operant-conditioning techniques
to teach new responses or to reduce or eliminate
maladaptive or problematic behavior.
• Also called applied behavior analysis.
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Operant Conditioning in Real Life, cont’
LO7.14 List and discuss six reasons why punishment often fails to effectively change
behavior.
• When punishment works
– When it immediately follows the behavior
– When it is mild rather than harsh
– When it is consistent
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Operant Conditioning in Real Life, cont’
LO7.14 List and discuss six reasons why punishment often fails to effectively change
behavior.
Punishment fails…
… when it is administered inappropriately or mindlessly
… when the recipient responds with anxiety, fear, or rage
… when it does not immediately follow the behavior
… when it does not inform the recipient how it might be
avoided in the future
… when a consequence thought to be a punishment
proves to be reinforcing
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Operant Conditioning in Real Life, cont’
LO7.15 Discuss reasons why rewards may backfire, and not produce their intended
results for behavior.
• Extrinsic and intrinsic reinforcers
– Extrinsic reinforcers: Reinforcers that are
not inherently related to the activity being
reinforced.
– Intrinsic reinforcers: Reinforcers that are
inherently related to the activity being
reinforced.
– Extrinsic reinforcers may undermine intrinsic
reinforcers.
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Operant Conditioning in Real Life, cont’
LO7.15 Discuss reasons why rewards may backfire, and not produce their intended
results for behavior.
• Rewards can
backfire
– Preschoolers played with
felt-tipped markers.
– Divided into three groups
• Given markers again and
asked to draw
• Promised a reward for
playing with markers
• Played with markers, then
rewarded
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Learning and the Mind
LO7.16 Define and contrast latent learning and observational learning, and give an
example of each.
• Learning and the mind
– Latent learning
– Rats received one
maze trial per day.
– Learning isn’t the
same as performance.
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Learning and the Mind, cont’
LO7.16 Define and contrast latent learning and observational learning, and give an
example of each.
• Social cognitive learning
– Social-cognitive theories emphasize how
behavior is learned and maintained.
• Through observation and imitation of others
• Positive consequences
• Cognitive processes such as plans, expectations,
and beliefs
– Observational learning involves learning new
responses by observing the behavior of
another rather than through direct experience.
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Learning and the Mind, cont’
LO7.16 Define and contrast latent learning and observational learning, and give an
example of each.
• Bandura’s Bobo doll study
– In studies by Albert Bandura and his
colleagues, children watched films of an adult
kicking, punching, and hammering on a big
rubber doll.
– Later, the children imitated the adult’s
behavior, some of them almost exactly.
© 2014, 2011, 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.
Learning and the Mind, cont’
LO7.16 Define and contrast latent learning and observational learning, and give an
example of each.
• Media violence
– Since Bandura, hundreds of other experimental studies
have corroborated the findings.
– Meta-analysis shows that greater exposure to violence is
related to more aggressive behavior when controlled for
social class, intelligence, and other factors.
– Other researchers are less concerned because they
believe that media violence does not cause most viewers
to become aggressive.
– Aggressive individuals may be drawn to violent
programming.
© 2014, 2011, 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.
Learning and the Mind, cont’
LO7.16 Define and contrast latent learning and observational learning, and give an
example of each.
• Social-cognitive view and aggression
– Other factors intervene in the relationship
between what we see, what we learn, and
how we respond.
• Perceptions
• Interpretations
• Personality dispositions
© 2014, 2011, 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.