Download 37.3 Generators and Alternating Current 37 Electromagnetic Induction

37 Electromagnetic Induction
In 1831, two physicists,
Michael Faraday in
England and Joseph Henry
in the United States,
independently discovered
that magnetism could
produce an electric current
in a wire. Their discovery
was to change the world
by making electricity so
commonplace that it would
power industries by day
and light up cities by
night.
37 Electromagnetic Induction
37.1 Electromagnetic Induction
No battery or other voltage
source was needed to produce a
current—only the motion of a
magnet in a coil or wire loop.
Voltage was induced by the
relative motion of a wire with
respect to a magnetic field.
37 Electromagnetic Induction
37.1 Electromagnetic Induction
The production of voltage depends only on the relative motion
of the conductor with respect to the magnetic field.
Voltage is induced whether the magnetic field moves past a
conductor, or the conductor moves through a magnetic field.
The results are the same for the same relative motion.
37 Electromagnetic Induction
37.1 Electromagnetic Induction
The amount of voltage induced depends on how quickly the
magnetic field lines are traversed by the wire.
• Very slow motion produces hardly any voltage at all.
• Quick motion induces a greater voltage.
Increasing the number of loops of wire that move in a
magnetic field increases the induced voltage and the current
in the wire.
Pushing a magnet into twice as many loops will induce twice
as much voltage.
37 Electromagnetic Induction
37.1 Electromagnetic Induction
Twice as many loops as another means twice as much
voltage is induced. For a coil with three times as many loops,
three times as much voltage is induced.
37 Electromagnetic Induction
37.1 Electromagnetic Induction
We don’t get something
(energy) for nothing by simply
increasing the number of loops
in a coil of wire.
Work is done because the
induced current in the loop
creates a magnetic field that
repels the approaching magnet.
If you try to push a magnet into
a coil with more loops, it
requires even more work.
37 Electromagnetic Induction
37.1 Electromagnetic Induction
Work must be done to move the magnet.
a. Current induced in the loop produces a magnetic field
(the imaginary yellow bar magnet), which repels the bar
magnet.
37 Electromagnetic Induction
37.1 Electromagnetic Induction
Work must be done to move the magnet.
a. Current induced in the loop produces a magnetic field
(the imaginary yellow bar magnet), which repels the bar
magnet.
b. When the bar magnet is pulled away, the induced
current is in the opposite direction and a magnetic field
attracts the bar magnet.
37 Electromagnetic Induction
37.1 Electromagnetic Induction
The law of energy conservation applies here.
The force that you exert on the magnet multiplied by the
distance that you move the magnet is your input work.
This work is equal to the energy expended (or possibly
stored) in the circuit to which the coil is connected.
37 Electromagnetic Induction
37.1 Electromagnetic Induction
If the coil is connected to a resistor, more induced voltage in
the coil means more current through the resistor.
That means more energy expenditure.
Inducing voltage by changing the magnetic field around a
conductor is electromagnetic induction.
37 Electromagnetic Induction
37.2 Faraday’s Law
Faraday’s law states that the induced voltage in
a coil is proportional to the product of the
number of loops, the cross-sectional area of
each loop, and the rate at which the magnetic
field changes within those loops.
37 Electromagnetic Induction
37.2 Faraday’s Law
Faraday’s law describes the relationship between
induced voltage and rate of change of a magnetic field:
The induced voltage in a coil is proportional to the product
of the number of loops, the cross-sectional area of each
loop, and the rate at which the magnetic field changes
within those loops.
37 Electromagnetic Induction
37.2 Faraday’s Law
The current produced by electromagnetic induction
depends upon
• the induced voltage,
• the resistance of the coil, and the circuit to
which it is connected.
For example, you can plunge a magnet in and out of
a closed rubber loop and in and out of a closed loop
of copper.
The voltage induced in each is the same but the
current is quite different—a lot in the copper but
almost none in the rubber.
37 Electromagnetic Induction
37.2 Faraday’s Law
think!
If you push a magnet into a coil connected to a resistor you’ll
feel a resistance to your push. For the same pushing speed,
why is this resistance greater in a coil with more loops?
37 Electromagnetic Induction
37.2 Faraday’s Law
think!
If you push a magnet into a coil connected to a resistor you’ll
feel a resistance to your push. For the same pushing speed,
why is this resistance greater in a coil with more loops?
Answer:
More work is required because more voltage is induced, producing more
current in the resistor and more energy transfer. When the magnetic fields
of two magnets overlap, the two magnets are either forced together or
forced apart. When one of the fields is induced by motion of the other, the
polarity of the fields is always such as to force the magnets apart. Inducing
more current in more coils increases the induced magnetic field and the
resistive force.
37 Electromagnetic Induction
37.3 Generators and Alternating Current
A current can be generated by plunging a magnet into and out
of a coil of wire.
• As the magnet enters, the magnetic field strength inside
the coil increases and induced voltage in the coil is
directed one way.
• As the magnet leaves, the magnetic field strength
diminishes and voltage is induced in the
opposite direction.
• Greater frequency of field change induces
greater voltage.
• The frequency of the alternating voltage is the frequency
of the changing magnetic field within the loop.
37 Electromagnetic Induction
37.3 Generators and Alternating Current
It is more practical to move the coil instead of moving the
magnet, by rotating the coil in a stationary magnetic field.
A machine that produces electric current by rotating a coil
within a stationary magnetic field is called a generator.
A generator is essentially the opposite of a motor, converting
mechanical energy into electrical energy.
37 Electromagnetic Induction
37.3 Generators and Alternating Current
Simple Generators
Starting perpendicular to the field, the loop has the largest
number of lines inside.
As it rotates, the loop encircles fewer of the field lines until it
lies along the field lines, when it encloses none at all.
As rotation continues, it encloses more field lines, reaching a
maximum when it has made a half revolution.
The magnetic field inside the loop changes in cyclic fashion.
37 Electromagnetic Induction
37.3 Generators and Alternating Current
37 Electromagnetic Induction
37.3 Generators and Alternating Current
37 Electromagnetic Induction
37.3 Generators and Alternating Current
37 Electromagnetic Induction
37.3 Generators and Alternating Current
37 Electromagnetic Induction
37.3 Generators and Alternating Current
37 Electromagnetic Induction
37.3 Generators and Alternating Current
37 Electromagnetic Induction
37.3 Generators and Alternating Current
As the loop rotates, the magnitude and direction of the induced
voltage (and current) change. One complete rotation of the
loop produces one complete cycle in voltage (and current).
37 Electromagnetic Induction
37.3 Generators and Alternating Current
The voltage induced by the
generator alternates, and the current
produced is alternating current (AC).
The current changes magnitude and
direction periodically.
The standard AC in North America
changes magnitude and direction
during 60 complete cycles per
second—60 hertz.
37 Electromagnetic Induction
37.3 Generators and Alternating Current
Complex Generators
The generators used in power plants are much more
complex than the model discussed here.
Huge coils made up of many loops of wire are wrapped on
an iron core, to make an armature much like the armature of
a motor.
They rotate in the very strong magnetic fields of powerful
electromagnets.
37 Electromagnetic Induction
37.3 Generators and Alternating Current
The armature is connected externally to an assembly of paddle wheels
called a turbine.
While wind or falling water can be used to produce rotation of the turbine,
most commercial generators are driven by moving steam.
At the present time, a fossil fuel or nuclear fuel is used as the energy
source for the steam.
37 Electromagnetic Induction
37.3 Generators and Alternating Current
An energy source of some kind is required to operate
a generator.
Some fraction of energy from the source is converted to
mechanical energy to drive the turbine.
The generator converts most of this to electrical energy.
Some people think that electricity is a source of energy. It is
not. It is a form of energy that must have a source.
37 Electromagnetic Induction
37.4 Motor and Generator Comparison
An electric current is deflected in a magnetic field,
which underlies the operation of the motor.
Electromagnetic induction underlies the operation of
a generator.
We will call the deflected wire the motor effect and
the law of induction the generator effect.
37 Electromagnetic Induction
37.4 Motor and Generator Comparison
a. When a current moves to the right, there is a force on the
electrons, and the wire is tugged upward.
37 Electromagnetic Induction
37.4 Motor and Generator Comparison
a. When a current moves to the right, there is a force on the
electrons, and the wire is tugged upward.
b. When a wire with no current is moved downward, the
electrons in the wire experience a force, creating current.
37 Electromagnetic Induction
37.4 Motor and Generator Comparison
The motor effect occurs when a current moves through a
magnetic field.
• The magnetic field creates a perpendicular upward
force on the electrons.
• Because the electrons can’t leave the wire, the
entire wire is tugged along with the electrons.
37 Electromagnetic Induction
37.4 Motor and Generator Comparison
In the generator effect, a wire with no current is moved
downward through a magnetic field.
• The electrons in this wire experience a force
perpendicular to their motion, which is along the wire.
• A current begins to flow.
37 Electromagnetic Induction
37.4 Motor and Generator Comparison
A striking example of a device functioning as both motor and
generator is found in hybrid automobiles.
• When extra power for accelerating or hill climbing is
needed, this device draws current from a battery and
acts as a motor.
• Braking or rolling downhill causes the wheels to exert a
torque on the device so it acts as a generator and
recharges the battery.
• The electrical part of the hybrid engine is both a motor
and a generator.
37 Electromagnetic Induction
37.5 Transformers
Consider a pair of coils, side by side, one connected to a
battery and the other connected to a galvanometer.
It is customary to refer to the coil connected to the power
source as the primary (input), and the other as the
secondary (output).
37 Electromagnetic Induction
37.5 Transformers
As soon as the switch is closed in the primary and current
passes through its coil, a current occurs in the secondary.
When the primary switch is opened, a surge of current again
registers in the secondary but in the opposite direction.
Whenever the primary switch is opened or closed, voltage is
induced in the secondary circuit.
37 Electromagnetic Induction
37.5 Transformers
The magnetic field that builds up around the primary
extends into the secondary coil.
Changes in the magnetic field of the primary are sensed
by the nearby secondary.
These changes of magnetic field intensity at the
secondary induce voltage in the secondary, in accord
with Faraday’s law.
37 Electromagnetic Induction
37.5 Transformers
If we place an iron core inside
both coils, alignment of its
magnetic domains intensifies the
magnetic field within the primary.
The magnetic field is
concentrated in the core, which
extends into the secondary, so
the secondary intercepts more
field change.
The galvanometer will show
greater surges of current when
the switch of the primary is
opened or closed.
37 Electromagnetic Induction
37.5 Transformers
Instead of opening and closing a switch to produce the
change of magnetic field, an alternating current can
power the primary.
Then the rate of magnetic field changes in the primary
(and in the secondary) is equal to the frequency of the
alternating current.
Now we have a transformer, a device for increasing or
decreasing voltage through electromagnetic induction.
37 Electromagnetic Induction
37.5 Transformers
If the iron core forms a complete loop, guiding all
magnetic field lines through the secondary, the
transformer is more efficient.
All the magnetic field lines within the primary are
intercepted by the secondary.
37 Electromagnetic Induction
37.5 Transformers
Voltage
Voltages may be stepped up or stepped down with a
transformer.
Suppose the primary consists of one loop connected to a
1-V alternating source.
• Consider the arrangement of a one-loop secondary
that intercepts all the changing magnetic field lines
of the primary.
• Then a voltage of 1 V is induced in the secondary.
37 Electromagnetic Induction
37.5 Transformers
If another loop is wrapped around the core, the
induced voltage will be twice as much, in accord
with Faraday’s law.
If the secondary has a hundred times as many turns
as the primary, then a hundred times as much
voltage will be induced.
This arrangement of a greater number of turns on
the secondary than on the primary makes up a stepup transformer.
Stepped-up voltage may light a neon sign or
operate the picture tube in a television receiver.
37 Electromagnetic Induction
37.5 Transformers
a.
1 V induced in the secondary equals the voltage of the primary.
37 Electromagnetic Induction
37.5 Transformers
a.
b.
1 V induced in the secondary equals the voltage of the primary.
1 V is induced in the added secondary also because it intercepts the
same magnetic field change from the primary.
37 Electromagnetic Induction
37.5 Transformers
a.
b.
c.
1 V induced in the secondary equals the voltage of the primary.
1 V is induced in the added secondary also because it intercepts the
same magnetic field change from the primary.
2 V is induced in a single two-turn secondary.
37 Electromagnetic Induction
37.5 Transformers
If the secondary has fewer turns than the primary, the
alternating voltage in the secondary will be lower than that in
the primary.
The voltage is said to be stepped down.
If the secondary has half as many turns as the primary, then
only half as much voltage is induced in the secondary.
37 Electromagnetic Induction
37.5 Transformers
The relationship between primary and secondary voltages with
respect to the relative number of turns is
37 Electromagnetic Induction
37.5 Transformers
A practical transformer uses many coils. The relative
numbers of turns in the coils determines how much the
voltage changes.
37 Electromagnetic Induction
37.5 Transformers
Power
You don’t get something for nothing with a transformer that
steps up the voltage, for energy conservation is always in
control.
The transformer actually transfers energy from one coil to the
other. The rate at which energy is transferred is the power.
The power used in the secondary is supplied by the primary.
37 Electromagnetic Induction
37.5 Transformers
The primary gives no more power than the secondary uses.
If the slight power losses due to heating of the core are
neglected, then the power going in equals the power
coming out.
Electric power is equal to the product of voltage and current:
(voltage × current)primary = (voltage × current)secondary
37 Electromagnetic Induction
37.5 Transformers
If the secondary has more
voltage, it will have less current
than the primary.
If the secondary has less
voltage, it will have more
current than the primary.
37 Electromagnetic Induction
37.5 Transformers
This transformer lowers 120 V to
6 V or 9 V. It also converts AC to
DC by means of a diode that acts
as a one-way valve.
37 Electromagnetic Induction
37.5 Transformers
think!
When the switch of the primary is opened or
closed, the galvanometer in the secondary
registers a current. But when the switch remains
closed, no current is registered on the
galvanometer of the secondary. Why?
37 Electromagnetic Induction
37.5 Transformers
think!
When the switch of the primary is opened or
closed, the galvanometer in the secondary
registers a current. But when the switch remains
closed, no current is registered on the
galvanometer of the secondary. Why?
Answer:
A current is only induced in a coil when there is a
change in the magnetic field passing through it.
When the switch remains in the closed position,
there is a steady current in the primary and a
steady magnetic field about the coil.
37 Electromagnetic Induction
37.5 Transformers
think!
If the voltage in a transformer is stepped up, then the current is
stepped down. Ohm’s law says that increased voltage will produce
increased current. Is there a contradiction here, or does Ohm’s Law
not apply to transformers?
37 Electromagnetic Induction
37.5 Transformers
think!
If the voltage in a transformer is stepped up, then the current is
stepped down. Ohm’s law says that increased voltage will produce
increased current. Is there a contradiction here, or does Ohm’s Law
not apply to transformers?
Answer:
Ohm’s law still holds, and there is no contradiction. The voltage
induced across the secondary circuit, divided by the load
(resistance) of the secondary circuit, equals the current in the
secondary circuit. The current is stepped down in comparison with
the larger current that is drawn in the primary circuit.
37 Electromagnetic Induction
37.6 Power Transmission
Power is transmitted great
distances at high voltages and
correspondingly low currents.
This reduces energy losses
due to the heating of the wires.
Power may be carried from
power plants to cities at about
120,000 volts or more, stepped
down to about 2400 volts in the
city, and finally stepped down
again to 120 volts.
37 Electromagnetic Induction
37.6 Power Transmission
Power transmission uses transformers to increase voltage for
long-distance transmission and decrease it before it reaches
your home.
37 Electromagnetic Induction
37.6 Power Transmission
Energy, then, is transformed from
one system of conducting wires
to another by electromagnetic
induction.
The same principles account for
sending energy from a radiotransmitter antenna to a radio
receiver many kilometers away.
The effects of electromagnetic
induction are very far-reaching.
37 Electromagnetic Induction
37.7 Induction of Electric and Magnetic Fields
Electromagnetic induction has thus far been discussed in
terms of the production of voltages and currents.
The more fundamental way to look at it is in terms of the
induction of electric fields.
The electric fields, in turn, give rise to voltages and currents.
37 Electromagnetic Induction
37.7 Induction of Electric and Magnetic Fields
Induction takes place whether or not a conducting wire or
any material medium is present.
Faraday’s law states that an electric field is created in
any region of space in which a magnetic field is changing
with time.
The magnitude of the created electric field is proportional
to the rate at which the magnetic field changes.
The direction of the created electric field is at right angles
to the changing magnetic field.
37 Electromagnetic Induction
37.7 Induction of Electric and Magnetic Fields
If electric charge happens to be present where the
electric field is created, this charge will experience a
force.
• For a charge in a wire, the force could cause it to
flow as current, or to push the wire to one side.
• For a charge in the chamber of a particle
accelerator, the force can accelerate the charge to
high speeds.
37 Electromagnetic Induction
37.7 Induction of Electric and Magnetic Fields
There is a second effect, which is
the counterpart to Faraday’s law.
It is just like Faraday’s law, except
that the roles of electric and
magnetic fields are interchanged.
37 Electromagnetic Induction
37.7 Induction of Electric and Magnetic Fields
A magnetic field is created in any region of space in
which an electric field is changing with time.
• The magnitude of the magnetic field is proportional
to the rate at which the electric field changes.
• The direction of the created magnetic field is at
right angles to the changing electric field.
37 Electromagnetic Induction
37.8 Electromagnetic Waves
An electromagnetic wave is composed of
oscillating electric and magnetic fields that
regenerate each other.
37 Electromagnetic Induction
37.8 Electromagnetic Waves
Shake the end of a stick back and forth in still water and you
will produce waves on the water surface.
Similarly shake a charged rod back and forth in empty space
and you will produce electromagnetic waves in space.
37 Electromagnetic Induction
37.8 Electromagnetic Waves
The shaking charge can be considered an electric current.
• A magnetic field surrounds an electric current.
• A changing magnetic field surrounds a changing
electric current.
• A changing magnetic field creates a changing electric
field.
• The changing electric field creates a changing
magnetic field.
37 Electromagnetic Induction
37.8 Electromagnetic Waves
An electromagnetic wave is composed of oscillating electric and magnetic fields that
regenerate each other.
No medium is required. The oscillating fields emanate from the vibrating charge.
At any point on the wave, the electric field is perpendicular to the magnetic field.
Both are perpendicular to the direction of motion of the wave.
37 Electromagnetic Induction
37.8 Electromagnetic Waves
Speed of Electromagnetic Waves
For electromagnetic radiation, there is only
one speed—the speed of light—no matter
what the frequency or wavelength or intensity
of the radiation.
The changing electric field induces a
magnetic field. The changing magnetic field
acts back to induce an electric field.
Only one speed could preserve this
harmonious balance of fields.
37 Electromagnetic Induction
37.8 Electromagnetic Waves
If the wave traveled at less than the speed of light, the fields
would rapidly die out.
The electric field would induce a weaker magnetic field, which
would induce a still weaker electric field.
If the wave traveled at more than the speed of light, the fields
would build up in a crescendo of ever greater magnitudes.
At some critical speed, however, mutual induction continues
indefinitely, with neither a loss nor a gain in energy.
37 Electromagnetic Induction
37.8 Electromagnetic Waves
From his equations of electromagnetic induction,
Maxwell calculated the value of this critical speed
and found it to be 300,000 kilometers per second.
He used only the constants in his equations
determined by simple laboratory experiments with
electric and magnetic fields.
He didn’t use the speed of light. He found the speed
of light!
37 Electromagnetic Induction
37.8 Electromagnetic Waves
Nature of Light
Maxwell quickly realized that he had discovered the
solution to one of the greatest mysteries of the
universe—the nature of light.
Maxwell realized that radiation of any frequency would
propagate at the same speed as light.
37 Electromagnetic Induction
37.8 Electromagnetic Waves
This radiation includes radio waves, which can be
generated and received by antennas.
• A rotating device in the sending antenna alternately
charges the upper and lower parts of the antenna
positively and negatively.
• The charges accelerating up and down the antenna
transmit electromagnetic waves.
• When the waves hit a receiving antenna, the electric
charges inside vibrate in rhythm with the variations of
the field.