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Chapter 1
Chapter 1
Basic Building Blocks of English
An Overview of the Chapter
Basic Grammar Terms
You will learn:
• the parts of speech and their use.
• the importance of word order
Sentences
?
Parts of Speech
in a sentence in English.
• to make a distinction between
a phrase and clause; a main and
subordinate clause.
Simple
Verbs
Dependent
?
Nouns
• to recognize various types of
sentences.
• how to punctuate coordinating
?
Adverbial
Adjectives
conjunctions and conjunctive
?
Adjectival
?
adverbs.
Noun
?
Independent
• what a fragment is and how to
repair it.
?
?
?
Interjections
Warm-up
Knowing some grammatical terms might help you understand various important points while
studying grammar for writing. There are some basic terms in the chart above, but some of
them are missing. Work with a partner and try to guess the missing terms in the chart.
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Putting Pen to Paper
Parts of Speech
The basic building blocks of paragraphs are sentences, and sentences include phrases and
clauses, which are composed of individual words. Each word in English belongs to one of
the categories that we call “parts of speech.” There are nine parts of speech in English. Some
sources might not mention “determiners” as they consider them as a part of adjectives, while
some others add “articles” to the list below.
• Verbs (v)
• Nouns (n)
• Adjectives (adj)
• Adverbs (adv)
• Determiners (det)
• Pronouns (pron)
• Conjunctions (conj)
• Prepositions (prep)
• Interjections (interj)
Verbs, nouns, adjectives and adverbs are referred to as open-class words; that is, it is
possible to add new members to these parts of speech, while the rest are closed-class
words as we cannot add new words to these word groups. You can see almost all parts of
speech and an example for each of them in the sentence below.
Whenever my boss allows me to leave work earlier than I expect in the summer,
Conjunction
Pronoun
Adverb
Verb
I lie on the beach thinking about my serious problems to work out practical
Noun
Adjective
solutions for them.
Preposition
Some words in English may belong to more than one part of speech. See the examples
below.
(a) The car was very fast. (Adjective)
(b) He decided to walk fast to catch the bus. (Adverb)
(c) He is a better driver than I am. (Adjective)
(d) He drives better than I do. (Adverb)
(e) The convict was captured yesterday. (Noun)
(f) There was not enough evidence to convict Jack. (Verb)
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Chapter 1
Task 1.1
Identifying Parts of Speech
Unlike Turkish, English has a rigid word order. Each part of speech claims a particular
position within a phrase, clause or sentence. If you change the places of the elements of
a sentence, the sentence might express something else (probably something that is not
intended), or it might not express anything at all.
Read the paragraph carefully and identify the part of speech of the underlined words and
write the words below the paragraph. Then find more examples for each part of speech.
Mesir Paste
Mesir paste, also known as “power gum,” is a blend of 41 different
spices, and an annual festival in its honour has been celebrated in
Manisa for over 465 years. Mesir paste was invented by Hafsa Haftun,
the wife of an Ottoman sultan. It is intended as a general energizer
for curing all kinds of common diseases. Since this is commonly
considered a medicine for the masses, Turks, in order to thank Hafsa
Haftun for this invention, throw the paste from the minaret of the Sultan
Mosque once a year. The Mesir Paste Festival is also celebrated with
craft shows, concerts and sports events.
gum (n): a firm fruit-flavoured sweet/candy that you chew
masses (n): large groups of people
craft (n): an activity involving a special skill at making things with your
hands
(Dennis, 2006, p. 1324)
*The definitions of the glossed vocabulary items in this paragraph and
those in the rest of the book are from TEXTware A/S, 2002. Due to reasons
of lack of space, the citation for each paragraph is provided on page 302
with page numbers where it should normally appear.
1.______________adjective5.______________noun
2. ______________adverb6.______________preposition
3.______________conjunction 7.______________pronoun
4.______________determiner 8.______________verb
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Putting Pen to Paper
Phrase
A full sentence has to have a subject and verb, while a phrase is a set of words without one
or both of these elements. A phrase does not express a complete thought on its own. It is
more meaningful in a larger context. For example, the answer to the question in the following
example is a prepositional phrase that stands for a whole sentence in the context, but it is
neither a clause nor a sentence.
A: Where is your father?
B: Out to lunch.
Clause
A clause is a unit of language that either functions as a part of a sentence or as a sentence
on its own. The former is referred to as a dependent clause, while the latter is called an
independent clause. An understanding of the notion “clause” is highly significant in decoding
the meaning of a sentence.
Main Clause
A main clause can stand on its own and is able to express a complete thought. It has a
subject and predicate as seen in the following example.
• Ankara is the capital city of Turkey.
Dependent Clause
Unlike a main clause, a dependent clause, as the name suggests, cannot stand on its
own and is not able to present a complete thought. Another term for dependent clause
is “subordinate clause”; these two terms are used interchangeably. All dependent clauses
cooperate with a main clause. They strengthen and further explain what is conveyed in the
main clause. In both examples below, the sentence is composed of a main clause and a
dependent clause. As seen in the examples, a subordinate clause may follow or precede a
main clause. At times, one main clause can be accompanied by more than one dependent
clause.
Please call me as soon you arrive at the station.
Main Clause
Subordinate Clause
As he wanted to make a fresh start, he tried to put his past troubles behind him.
Subordinate Clause
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Main Clause
Chapter 1
Sentence
A sentence is a unit of expression that is composed of at least a subject and verb. It can
also be defined as a sequence of words presenting a complete thought. A sentence is
usually followed by a period (or a full stop as it is called in British and Australian English).
Think about the following groups of words. The first group is a random collection of words,
whereas the second provides the reader with a thought.
(a) school has he to gone
(b) He has gone to school.
Sentence 1: They usually do a great favour to the poor.
If we add “what” in front of the sentence, it is no longer a sentence, it is a fragment. This is
because “what” introduces a noun clause if the word order is not inverted as it is the case
in a question. Therefore, we need a verb to complete the sentence.
Question: What do they usually do?
Fragment: What they usually do a great favour to the poor.
What they usually do
a great favour to the poor.
A noun clause
(As the subject)
Noun phrase
(should function as
the complement of BE)
There is something missing here.
Repaired Version: What they usually do is a great favour to the poor.
Sentence 2: Most housewives have to do lots of domestic drudgery every day.
Fragment: Because most housewives have to do lots of domestic drudgery every day.
Because
A subordinator
+
Most housewives have to do lots of domestic drudgery every day.
+
Sentence
If a subordinator precedes a full sentence, it makes this sentence a subordinate clause.
Since a subordinate clause is a fragment rather than a full sentence, it cannot stand on its
own. Therefore, it should cooperate with a main clause to form a complete sentence (See
the repaired version of the sentence below.)
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Putting Pen to Paper
Repaired Version: Because most housewives have to do lots of domestic
drudgery every day, they have virtually no time for socializing.
Example (a) and (b) below are sentences. When we add the subordinator “even though”
to the first sentence, it is no longer a main clause; it becomes a subordinate clause. See
Example (c). Therefore, we have to connect it to a main clause. See Example (d).
(a) He studies hard for his examinations.
(b) He will probably fail most of them.
(c) Even though he studies hard for his examinations.
(d) Even though he studies hard for his examinations, he will probably fail most of them.
Task 1.2
Identifying Fragments
Decide whether the following lines are sentences or fragments. Write (S) for sentences and
write (F) for the lines that are fragments. If you write (F) for a particular line, try to explain why
it is so. Choose one of the reasons below.
(a) Subject missing
(b) Predicate missing (subject only)
(c) Subordinate clause only (main clause missing)
(d) Lack of an object after a transitive verb1
(e) Prepositional phrase only
1. transitive verb: a verb that is followed by an object
1. ______Since a group of children come to school without wearing a uniform.
____________________________________________________________________
2. ______The artist who paints stunning black-and-white pictures of the town.
____________________________________________________________________
3. ______Whenever I ask my father for some money, he tells me to spend my weekly
allowance more carefully.
____________________________________________________________________
4.______Works for much longer time doing his assignment than anyone can expect.
____________________________________________________________________
5. ______Eat your chocolate sponge sandwich quickly.
____________________________________________________________________
6.______Because he has been one of the most brilliant overseas students.
____________________________________________________________________
7.______A few of the students taking part in major sporting events last year.
____________________________________________________________________
8.______Sparing lots of time to save seriously endangered primate species.
____________________________________________________________________
9.______During the day, long before the sun sets behind distant red hills.
____________________________________________________________________
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Chapter 1
10. ______Several students requested to be assigned easier tasks that can be done in a
short time.
_______________________________________________________________________________
11. ______A well-written paragraph has several major properties.
_______________________________________________________________________________
12. ______Don’t underestimate what your peers can contribute to the language learning
process in which you are involved.
_______________________________________________________________________________
13. ______At the supermarket, my friends and I bought.
_______________________________________________________________________________
Types of Sentences
There are four types of sentences in English. The use of connectives and existence or lack of
dependent clauses determine the type of sentence in question. Every sentence is composed
of at least one main clause.
Simple Sentences
A simple sentence is composed of a subject and a verb complemented by an object. In
English, there are five essential simple sentence patterns. See the table below.
Quick Tip
The length of a
sentence has
nothing to do with
the term “simple or
Simple Sentence Patterns
Examples
(a) subject + verb
The building collapsed.
(b) subject + verb + object
They bought a new car.
(c) subject + verb + indirect object + direct object
She wrote him a letter.
complex sentence.”
(d) subject + verb + complement (of the verb “to be”)
(e) subject + verb+ object + object complement
Janet’s my friend.
She makes me happy.
(Adapted from Celce-Murcia, p. 20)
The length of a sentence has nothing to do with the term “simple sentence. Consider the
following examples.
(a) More than 100 million micro-organisms live in your mouth at any time.
(b) In the old days, young acrobats were fastened into strange and often very
painful positions by their trainers.
(Rooney, 2006, p. 10)
Both of these sentences are simple sentences though Sentence (b) is nearly twice as long as
the first. That is, length does not play a role in calling a sentence a simple, compound or a
complex one. Rather, some elements like existence of dependent and independent clauses
and connectives determine the type of a particular sentence.
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Putting Pen to Paper
There might be a compound subject or a compound verb or both of them in a simple
sentence. See the examples below.
(c) My brother and I will try to do our best at school. (Compound subject)
(d) My brother is watching TV and having a mid-afternoon snack. (Compound verb)
(e) The teacher and her students carried out a chemical experiment and recorded the
results. (Compound subject and verb)
Compound Sentences
A compound sentence is a sentence that is composed
of two main clauses connected by using a coordinator.
There are seven coordinating conjunctions in English:
and, but, or, nor, so, yet and for. To remember them
better, you can keep the word “fanboys” in your mind.
This word is made up of the initial letters of the seven
coordinating conjunctions.
There are different types of connectives in English. The
following table lists commonly used conjunctive adverbs.
You may add more items to this list.
Frequently Used Conjunctive Adverbs
Comparison or
Cause or Effect
Addition
Emphasis
Contrast
accordingly
conversely
additionally
certainly
after all
however
also
in fact
as a result
in comparison
alternatively
in particular
consequently
in contrast
besides
indeed
hence
instead
further
still
otherwise
likewise
furthermore
undoubtedly
similarly
meanwhile
in addition
therefore
nevertheless
incidentally
thus
nonetheless
moreover
on the other hand
otherwise
rather
similarly
8
Time
afterwards
currently
eventually
finally
initially
meanwhile
next
now
subsequently
then
thereafter
Chapter 1
Summarising
in a few words
in brief
in short
in sum
Exemplification
as an example
for example
for instance
namely
Listing
first
second
next
finally
Paraphrasing
in other words
that is
Miscellaneous
in turn
Complex Sentences
A complex sentence is composed of a main clause and a subordinate clause. For example, a
sentence with a noun that is described by an adjectival clause is a complex sentence because
an adjectival clause is a dependent clause. As you have learned earlier, a subordinate clause
is produced using a subordinator.
Examples:
(a) You go white when really scared because blood drains from your skin.
(Rooney, 2006, p. 11)
(b) Liposuction is a popular operation in Europe and the USA amongst people who feel
they are too fat.
(Rooney, 2006, p. 17]
(c) In my younger and more vulnerable years, my father gave me some advice that I’ve
been turning over in my mind ever since.
(Fitzgerald, 1925, p. 3)
(d) Nobody knows how to solve this problem.
Condition
even if
if
if only
provided (that)
providing (that)
since
unless
whether
Frequently Used Subordinating Conjunctions
Comparison
Reason or Result
Time
Concession
or Contrast
as
as if
as though
rather than
whereas
while
as
because
since
on the grounds that
the reason why
after
as long as
as soon as
by the time
every time
immediately
the moment
before
now that
once
since
till/until
when
whenever
while
although
as if
even if
though
even though
Purpose
in order that
so that
for fear that
lest
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Putting Pen to Paper
Task 1.3
Subordination
The following sentences are incomplete. Write either a subordinate or a main clause to
complete them.
1. The young boy seemed as though________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
2. Unless I tell you to go there,_______________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
3. People in developed countries waste lots of food, whereas____________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
4. The old man refused to join the party on the grounds that_____________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
5. Once you have entered the five-digit password, ____________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
6. Even if you come here long before seven o’clock, ___________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
7. Some families do not send their children to swimming pools for fear that_______________
_________________________________________________________________________________
8. As long as you keep your promise,_________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
9. If you can come up with a good solution to this problem,_____________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
10. Since you have to be at the office by 5 o’clock,______________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
Compound-Complex Sentences
As the name suggests, a compound-complex sentence possesses the properties of both
a compound and a complex sentence. It is composed of at least two main clauses and
a subordinate one. In other words, we must have at least two independent clauses and a
dependent clause attached to one of these independent clauses. A compound-complex
sentence can be as short as the one below.
You can come early if you wish, but come alone.
Main Clause
Compound
Complex Sentence
10
=
Subordinate Clause
Complex
Sentence
+
Main Clause
Simple
Sentence
Chapter 1
Compound Sentence (Comma + Coordinating conjunction between two main clauses):
The hurricane hit the area, so hundreds of houses were damaged.
Compound Sentence (Semicolon+ Conjunctive Adverb [Transition] between two main
clauses):
The hurricane hit the area; therefore, hundreds of houses were damaged.
Complex Sentence (Subordinating conjunction at the beginning)
When the hurricane stroke, hundreds of houses were damaged.
Complex Sentence (Subordinating conjunction in the middle)
Hundreds of houses were damaged when the hurricane stroke.
Compound-Complex Sentence (Subordinator + sentence, sentence, coordinating
conjunction + sentence):
As the hurricane hit the area, hundreds of houses were damaged, so the government sent
humanitarian aid to the area.
Task 1.4
Sentence Types
____There are more bacteria in your mouth than there are people in the world.
(Rooney, 2006, p. 38)
Are you interested in horrible facts? Do you know any interesting facts like the one in the
example above? If so, write them below. If you do not know some interesting facts, find
someone in the class who does and write what he/she tells you below.
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
Now, read more facts on the next page to enjoy yourself.
11
Horrible Facts
Putting Pen to Paper
Human Body
Animals
1. (S) Wet hair stretches to about 1.5 times
9. (S) A mosquito can drink one and a half
its dry length.
2. (CX) If you do not brush plaque off your
meal.
10. (CC) Cockroaches breed so fast that
teeth, it hardens into a substance called
if all the young survived and reproduced,
tartar, which is like cement and impossible
there would be 10 million cockroaches
to remove with your toothbrush.
3. (CD) When you sneeze, up to a million
from a single pair by the end of a year; the
Earth will be full of them.
11. (CD) There are 100 million times more
tiny viruses are sprayed out of your nose
insects than people on earth, and their
and mouth.
total weight is 12 times the total weight of
History
people.
12. (CX) Snake venom is not normally
poisonous if swallowed because stomach
4. (CC) Ivan the Terrible blinded the two
acid alters the chemicals in it.
architects who designed his new church
13. (CX) When there’s not much food
of Saint Basil’s, so they were not able to
make anything more beautiful.
around, cockroaches will eat each other.
14. (S) A scorpion can go for a whole year
without eating.
5. (CX) For centuries, it was illegal to
15. (CC) A cockroach can live for a week
cut up dead bodies, so surgeons and
after its head is cut off.
scientists who wanted to research had
to pay criminals to steal the corpses of
Food
16. (CD) Alligator kebabs are popular in
executed prisoners from the gallows in
southern Louisiana, USA.
order to learn about anatomy.
17. (CD) As early as the ninth century,
6. (CD) Ancient Egyptians sometimes
brought a mummified body to banquets to
the Basques of Spain hunted whales, and
whale tongue was considered a great
delicacy.
remind diners that one day they would die.
18. (S) In France, over 40,000 metric tons
7. (CX) Before artificial teeth were made of
(88 million pounds) of snails are consumed
porcelain in the 1800s, many people who
needed false teeth wore teeth pulled from
every year.
19. (CX) In some countries where people
do not have food processors or forks,
the mouths of corpses.
mothers chew up food to put into their
8. (CX) Sailors in the olden days often had
babies’ mouths.
a single gold tooth, which could be pulled
out and used to pay for their funeral if they
died away from home.
12
times its own weight in blood at a single
(Rooney, 2006, pp. 31, 19, 34, 130, 130,
172, 125, 36, 128, 77, 100, 167, 155, 90,
76, 93, 49, 50, 68, 64)
Chapter 1
Please note that the type of sentence is given for each item in the passage (by using four
labels: S for a simple sentence, CX for a complex sentence, CD for a compound sentence
and CC for a compound complex sentence).
Study the sentences carefully and tell your partner why each sentence is given that particular
label. Be careful! There are five sentences with wrong labels. Find them and write the correct
label for them.
In order to identify the type of a sentence, you should have a look at the number of
independent and dependent (main and subordinate) clauses and the use of subordinators
and coordinators. You can use the decision tree below to identify the type of a sentence.
Start
How many independent
here!
clauses are there in your sentence?
Only One
Two or more
Are there any
Are there any
dependent clauses?
dependent clauses?
No
Yes
No
Yes
Simple
Sentence
Complex
Sentence
Compound
Sentence
Compound
-complex
Sentence
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Putting Pen to Paper
Task 1.5
Sentence Types
Suppose that you have a set of sentences. Here are the elements of the sentences that you
have. Use the decision tree above and identify the type of the sentence for each item. Be
careful about the terminology. Sometimes synonyms are used.
Task 1.6
1. A main clause with a noun clause in it
2. A main clause with no dependent clauses
3. Two independent clauses, one of them containing an adverbial clause of time
4. Two dependent clauses that are attached to an independent clause
5. Three subordinate clauses connected to a main clause
6. An independent clause with three subordinate clauses
7. Two independent clauses connected with a coordinating conjunction
Sentence Types
Decide whether the following sentences are simple (S), compound (CD), complex (CX) or
compound-complex (CC). Please use the decision tree above.
1. _______Even though my brother is an amateur, he plays football like a professional.
2._______Albert Einstein was one the greatest physicist of all times.
3._______My father claimed that I failed to see my daughter’s grave mistakes because she
was my beloved one.
4._______When I was a primary school kid, my father brought several bags of fresh fruits and
nuts with him on special days, such as festivals and holidays, and we ate them delightedly.
5._______My brother is an amateur footballer, but he plays football as if he were a professional.
6._______After she had taken a few bites from her sandwich, the sound of the bell for the
afternoon class echoed across the marble-floored hallway.
7._______Farmers and gatherers in the ancient world earned their living and supported their
families by working hard.
8._______I read a science-fiction novel last month; it was one of the best books that I have
read in recent years.
9._______China is the most populated country in the world.
14
Chapter 1
10._______Tea and mandarins are produced in Rize, which is a beautiful city in the Black
Sea Region.
11._______Currently, cell phones mean more than just a means for communication for most
people, so they are getting more and more indispensable in our lives.
12._______Alexander Graham Bell was a great inventor and engineer who is famous for the
invention of the telephone.
13._______Even though my father no longer gives me weekly allowance, I have enough
money to spend, so I am happy.
14._______The student was asked to do an intellectually challenging task.
15._______Receiving good education involved many challenges, for he had psychological
and financial problems.
16._______Whenever my aunt visits our house in the countryside, we organize a big barbecue
party, so everybody has a good time.
Task 1.7
Sentence Types
Read the following paragraphs and decide if the sentences are simple (S), compound (CD),
complex (CX) or compound-complex (CC). Use the decision tree given earlier to identify the
type of each sentence. Identify all the subjects, predicates, dependent and independent
clauses. Then complete the table below.
How many
How many
subordinate
main clauses
clauses are
are there?
there?
Para. 1 Para. 2 Para.1 Para. 2
Connectives (used to connect
clauses)
Para. 1
Para. 2
Sentence 1
Sentence 2
Sentence 3
Sentence 4
Sentence 5
Sentence 6
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Putting Pen to Paper
Paragraph 1: Smart Machines
1
Many people believe that by the middle of the 21st century the world will be populated
by “smart” robots, which will be able to make their own judgments and decisions.
2
These robots will be intelligent, independent and able to communicate with each
other. 3But they will specialize in specific functions, so a robot that can travel at great
speeds, for example, will not also be able to play championship chess.
4
However,
their skills, overall range of knowledge and ability to intercommunicate will provide
them with great power.
5
Some scientists now predict that robots will become so
advanced that they will be able to think for themselves. 6Robots may one day offer
us a life which is free from drudgery, but such a future is not without risk of creating
machines that may take on lives of their own.
drudgery (n): monotonous tasks
take on (v): to get possession of sth
(Tambini, 2004, p. 44)
Paragraph 2: Acupuncture
1
Acupuncture is one of the ancient healing practices recommended by traditional
Chinese medicine as a way of curing disease, relieving pain and maintaining health.
2
Acupuncture is a holistic medicine; that is, it stresses the interconnectedness of
one’s body, mind and spirit.
3
An acupuncturist understands that physical ailments
can affect one’s emotional or psychological state and that emotional, spiritual, or
psychological difficulties can lead to disease. 4According to Chinese philosophy,
energy, which is called chi or qi, circulates through all things, including our bodies.
The proper flow of chi is essential to good health.
5
The practice of acupuncture
6
involves placing needles into specific points on the body as the acupuncturist wants
to control this energy.
healing (n): [U] the process of becoming or making sb/sth healthy again
ailments (n): illnesses that are not very serious
(Alison, 1999, p. 183)
16
Chapter 1
Task 1.8
Sentence Types
Complete the following incomplete lines to make them simple (S), compound (CD), complex
(CX) or compound-complex (CC) sentences. The sentence type that you have to produce is
given in parentheses.
1. (CX) As she got up just before dawn, ____________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
2. (CC) As she got up just before dawn, ____________________________________________
_________________________,
so___________________________________________________
3. (CD) The young girl_____________________________________; she_____________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
4. (CC) Although the employees worked very hard, they failed to finish the project on time,
so
they_____________________________________________________________________.
5. (CX) He was about to finish the last item on the test when________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
6. (CC) The country which was devastated in the civil war was rebuilt, and___________
______________________________________________________________________________
7. (S) _______________________and _________________________were
requested
to__________________
and_____________________________________________
8. (S) My close friend and __________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
9. (CD) ____________________________________________, and_________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
10. (S) _______________and_______________________________________________________
11. (CC) Whenever he sees me, ____________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
12. (CD) My mum wakes up early, ________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
13. (CD) A great majority of the students in my class___________________________________;
_______________________________________________________________________________
14. (CC) Even though it was___________________________, I____________________________
_______________________________,so______________________________________________
15. (CX) The moment I saw him, I____________________________________________________
_______________________________and_____________________________________________
17
Putting Pen to Paper
Task 1.9
Sentence Types
In the following paragraph, there are some sentences that can be connected to each other.
Rewrite the paragraph by connecting these sentences to each other. Remember that there
might be more than one possible way of combining them.
How do Plants Survive Cold Weather?
Plants survive the cold by shutting down most of their normal processes. Some plants
dieback. This happens just after the weather becomes cold. They store food in their
roots or in special organs, such as bulbs. The plants are ready to grow back. This
happens when the weather warms up again. Woody plants cannot do this. They
usually lose their leaves. They do not need to photosynthesize. These plants
become inactive until the spring. Some plants have tough leathery leaves. These
leaves can withstand the cold. They just slow down their internal processes and wait
for warmer weather. Some plants do not survive the winter at all. Their
continuation is guaranteed. They produce resistant seeds. These seeds grow quickly
in the spring.
bulbs (n): the round underground parts of some plants, which grow into new plants
every year
woody (adj): (of plants) having a thick, hard stem-like wood
tough (adj): strong enough to deal successfully with difficult conditions or situations
leathery (adj): that looks or feels hard and tough like leather
withstand (v): to resist
seeds (n): the small hard parts produced by a plant, from which a new plant can grow
(Gallagher, 2001, p. 122)
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18
Chapter 1
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Summary
Being aware of the components of a sentence helps you write better sentences. Similarly,
knowing how to form a simple, compound, complex or compound-complex sentence makes
you a better writer.
Read the Frequently Asked Questions section quickly and interview a friend about what he/
she can remember about it.
Frequently Asked Questions
Does a reduced adjectival clause, adverbial clause or noun clause still make a
sentence a complex one?
The answer is a simple “Yes” because reduced clauses are clauses as well.
What is the best way to decide on the number of clauses in a sentence?
First, identify the subjects and main verbs. Then look for subordinators and coordinators,
and so on.
Do conjunctive adverbs, such as “however, therefore, thus, otherwise”
make a compound sentence?
Yes and No. It depends on the punctuation of the sentence. That is, if you use a semicolon
before the conjunctive adverb that connects two main clauses, you have a compound
sentence, but if you use a full stop before it, you have two separate sentences.
How many different types of sentences does a good paragraph contain?
Actually, all sentence types can be seen in a single paragraph. It is customary to write a
paragraph using different sentence types. For example, a ten-sentence paragraph might
include one or two compound sentences, several simple and complex sentences and
one or two compound-complex sentences. As the number of subordinators in English
is higher than the number of coordinators, you might find more complex sentences than
you find compound ones in a paragraph.
19
Putting Pen to Paper
Project Time
Task A: Writing the Shortest and Longest Sentence
Form groups of four and try to write the longest simple sentence and the shortest compoundcomplex one. The group with the largest number of words in its simple sentence and smallest
number of words in its compound-complex will be the winner.
Task B: Identifying Sentence Types
Randomly choose ten paragraphs from writing books and work in groups to identify the
number of each type of sentence in these paragraphs. Then prepare a presentation with
some statistical data and present it to your friends in the class.
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